IH 


UWIVERSITT  FARM 


Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry 


FARM  SCIENCE  SERIES 


Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry 

By  C.  S.  PLUMB,  Ohio  State  University 

Field  Crops 

By  A.  D.  WILSON,  University  of  Minnesota 
and  C.  W.  WARBURTON,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility 

By  A.   R.  WHITSON,  University  of  Wisconsin 
and  H.  L.  WALSTER,  University  of  Wisconsin 

Agricultural  Engineering 

By  J.  B.  DAVIDSON,  Iowa  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts 

Popular  Fruit  Growing 

By  S.  B.  GREEN,  University  of  Minnesota 

Vegetable  Gardening 

By  S.  B.  GREEN,  University  of  Minnesota 


(OTHER   VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION) 


BOOKS  WRITTEN  BY  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 


A.  BIOGRAPHICAL  DIRECTORY  OF  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURAL  SCIENTISTS 
Edited  and  published  at  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  1889;  pp.  100; 
flexible  cloth.    The  simply  of  these  is  exhausted. 

INDIAN  CORN  CULTURF 

Chicago:    The   Breeders'   Gazette   Flint.    1895.     Cloth; 
pp.  243;  figs.  63. 

LITTLE  SKETCHES  OF  FAMOUS  BEFF  CATTLE 

Columbus,  Ohio:     Published  by  the  author,  1904.     Cloth; 
pp.  99. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Boston:    Ginn  &  Co.,  1906.    Cloth;  pp.  563;  figs.  256. 

A  PARTIAL  INDEX  TO  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  LITERATURE 

Columbus,  Ohio:    Published  by  the  author,  1911.     Cloth; 
pp.  94. 

JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co.,  1916.     Cloth;  pp.  590. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  McLay  Bros. 

"For  should  I  speake  rather  like  a  Philosopher  than  a  Christian,  I 
could  not  but  agnize  nature  to  bee  admirable  in  all  her  workes, 
wherein  man  doth  owe  unto  her  infinite,  and  those  very  great 
thankes,  in  that  shee  hath  accommodated  and  plentifully  furnished 
him  with  all  things  needfull  for  his  use,  as  also  in  that  shee  hath 
propagated  (among  all  other)  the  horse,  the  most  usefull  for  the 
service  of  man,  and  who  best  acknowledgeth  his  Master." 

—Thomas  de  Grey,  1651. 


BEGINNINGS  IN 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


BY 

CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  IN  THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
OF  THE  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 


1921 

BB  PUBLISHING 

ST.EMJL.MINN. 


COPYRIGHT.    1921 

By  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
W-10 


UNIVERSITY  FA** 


FOREWORD 


Agricultural  education  in  America  is  comparatively  new. 
Previous  to  1870  but  few  colleges  of  agriculture  existed  in 
this  country.  During  the  period  between  1870  and  about 
1890,  interest  was  awakened  in  this  field  of  education.  Many 
of  the  agricultural  colleges  graduated  their  first  classes  along 
in  the  seventies.  Excepting  a  few  men  who  had  been  trained 
in  chemistry,  as  applied  to  agriculture,  there  were  almost 
no  instructors  who  had  received  what  we  now  regard  as  an 
agricultural  education.  The  instruction  known  as  agricul- 
tural, then  consisted  of  lectures  on  familiar  farm  practices, 
frequently  supplemented  by  manual  labor  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  Text  books  were  few,  and  the  preparation  of  new 
ones  was  slow. 

Agricultural  education  under  these  conditions  lagged, 
and  how  to  encourage  interest  became  a  serious  problem 
with  the  colleges.  Educators  insisted  that  the  teaching 
should  be  largely  based  on  pure  science,  and  it  was  often 
difficult  'for  the  students  to  see  the  application. 

Recognizing  this  lack  of  interest,  a  few  Western  colleges 
conceived  the  plan  of  giving  short  winter  courses  of  a  popular 
nature,  in  which  practical  laboratory  instruction  should  be 
given.  Work  in  dairying,  horticulture,  and  live  stock  judg- 
ing first  received  attention.  This  practical  training  was 
most  favorably  regarded  by  the  students.  These  winter 
courses  grew  rapidly  in  popularity,  and  paved  the  way  for 
more  attractive  forms  of  instruction  for  the  regular  students. 
Through  this  medium  of  the  short  winter  course,  both  inter- 

4C9738 


est  and  attendance  in  the  agricultural  colleges  rapidly  grew. 
New  courses  of  study  were  established,  more  buildings  and 
equipment  were  required,  and  then  agricultural  education 
sprang  into  popularity.  The  production  of  new  types  of 
text  books,  on  subjects  heretofore  undiscussed  in  pedagogical 
form,  logically  followed  in  this  evolution  in  agricultural  edu^ 
cation. 

During  this  movement  in  behalf  of  rural  uplift,  a  few 
progressive  men  urged  the  importance  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion in  the  country  schools  of  higher  grade.  This  resulted 
in  establishing  agricultural  schools  of  secondary  grade  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  both  North  and  South. 
During  the  past  few  years,  country  life  has  become  popular. 
As  a  result,  there  is  a  widespread  movement  in  behalf  of 
agricultural  education,  and  the  subject  is  now  being  taught 
in  its  various  phases  in  many  schools  all  over  the  land. 

Recognizing  the  need  of  an  elementary  text  book  for 
young  people,  the  author  has  seen  fit  to  prepare  this  volume 
on  animal  husbandry,  the  first  of  its  kind  devoted  to  this 
special  field.  It  is  his  earnest  hope  that  such  lessons  as  either 
teacher  or  pupil  shall  find  within  these  pages,  may  result  in 
a  desire  for  yet  wider  knowledge  of  and  a  more  sympathetic 
interest  in  our  farm  animals. 

CHARLES  S.  PLUMB. 
Ohio    State   University, 
Columbus,   Ohio, 
November    1,     1912. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  .       .       .  11 

II.  THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 23 

III.  THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE    .  .       .       .       .       .46 

IV.  THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 74 

V.  THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 99 

VI.  ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE       ....  114 

VII.  REASONS  AND  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK       .  125 

VIII.  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 138 

IX.  JUDGING  THE  HORSE 158 

X.  THE  JUDGING  OF  CATTLE 173 

XI.  THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 196 

XII.  THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 209 

XIII.  HEREDITY:    ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE        .       .  221 

X IV.  SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 230 

XV.  PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 240 

XVI.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS       .       .               .  248 

XVII.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS       .        .  257 

XVIII.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY      .       .       .  265 

XIX.  FEEDING  STANDARDS:    THEIR  ORIGIN  AND  USE         .  274 

XX.  How  TO  CALCULATE  A  RATION 281 

XXI.  COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE         ....  288 

XXII.  CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE  .        .       .  303 

XXIII.  THE  CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 313 

XXIV.  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 325 

XXV.  JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS        .       .  340 

XXVI.  EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 349 

XXVII.  THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 360 

XXVIII.  POULTRY  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT       .              .       .  374 


BEGINNINGS   IN 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  study  of  domestic  animals  may  be  considered  both 
a  pleasure  and  a  duty.  A  pleasure,  because  of  the  natural- 
born  interest  man  feels  in  all  animals;  and  a  duty,  on  account 
of  the  service  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  play  in  the 
world's  affairs.  Between  many  people,  and  even  nations, 


Fig.  1.     A  view  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show  of  England.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

and  their  domestic  animals,  we  find  an  affectionate,  sympa- 
thetic relationship.  The  people  of  Great  Britain,  the  world's 
leading  stockmen,  from  the  King  and  Queen  to  the  humblest 
laborer,  show  a  keen  and  kindly  interest  in  everything 
relating  to  farm  live  stock.  One  of  the  most  interesting 


12  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

sights  to  be  seen  in  Europe  is  the  annual  show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England,  where  live  stock  is  made 
the  leading  feature,  and  where  vast  throngs  of  people  go  to 
inspect  and  talk  over  the  animals  and  watch  the  judges  at 
their  work.  The  average  Britisher  is  a  lover  of  animals, 
and  expresses  a  common,  inherited  sentiment.  This  dis- 
position on  the  part  of  a  people,  develops  the  finer,  more 
sympathetic  qualities,  and  broadens  and  strengthens  char- 
acter. In  the  same  way,  the  boy  or  girl  who  shows  a  devo- 
tion to  the  animal  given  to  his  or  her  care,  becomes  finer, 
more  sympathetic,  and  broader  minded,  and  is  rendered  more 
resourceful  and  capable.  From  another  point  of  view,  ani- 
mals play  a  most  important  part  on  account  of  their  uses  for 
food  and  labor.  Therefore,  the  study  of  animals  as  relating 
to  farm  economy  and  the  markets  of  the  world  becomes  a 
most  important  matter. 

The  commercial  value  of  the  live  stock  industry  is  so 
great  that  only  a  brief  reference  can  be  made  to  it  here. 
One  is  unable  to  comprehend  the  magnitude  of  the  figures 
which  relate  to  either  numbers  or  values  of  farm  animals. 

The  thirteenth  United  States  census,  for  1910,  reports 
the  following  numbers  and  values  as  applied  to  animals  on 
our  farms  for  that  year. 

CLASS  OF  STOCK  NUMBER  VALUE 

Horses .  : 19,731,000  $2,076,000,000 

Mules  and  asses 4,285,000  522402,000 

Cattle 61,226,000  1,485,000,000 

Sheep 52,448,000  209,536,000 

Swine 58,186,000  615,170,000 

Total 195,876,000      $4,908,108,000 

By  these  figures  we  see  that  we  had  in  1910  almost  200 
million  animals  on  our  farms,  and  that  they  were  valued  at 
over  four  billion  dollars,  a  sum  far  too  big  to  comprehend. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  13 

The  significant  thing  is  simply  to  realize  the  vastness  of  our 
live-stock  industry,  and  the  enormous  sum  of  money  here 
invested,  besides  the  value  of  the  animals  themselves.  The 
greatest  live-stock  producing  section  of  the  country  includes 
the  states  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas.  The  two 
states  of  most  importance  in  numbers  of  each  kind  of  live 
stock  in  the  United  States  in  1910,  are  as  follows: 

Horses /Iowa  first,  with 1,489,000 

\Illinois  second,  with 1,450,000 

Cattle /Texas  first,  with 6,722.000 

\Iowa  second,  with 4,468,000 

Sheep /Wyoming  first,  with 5,397,000 

\Montana  second,  with 5,381,000 

Swine /Iowa  first,  with 7,527,000 

\Illinois  second,  with 4,684,000 

We  see  from  the  above  that  Iowa  ranks  first  in  numbers 
of  horses  and  swine,  and  second  in  cattle,  which  gives  this 
state  the  leading  position  in  live-stock  production;  Illinois 
holds  a  close  second  place. 

The  importance  of  our  live  stock  may  also  be  seen  from 
another  point  of  view  in  connection  with  our  local  markets. 
The  city  of  Chicago  is  the  largest  live-stock  market  in  the 
world.  The  Union  Stock  Yards  of  that  city  cover  500 
acres,  and  received  in  1911  a  total  of  16^  millions  of  farm 
animals,  valued  at  about  340  millions  of  dollars.  Nearly 
272,000  car  loads  of  live  stock  were  received  in  these  yards  in 
1911.  This  is  equal  to  745  cars  a  day.  At  an  average 
length  of  34  feet  to  a  car,  these  cars  would  make  one 
solid  train  of  live  stock  about  4^4  miles  long.  There  are 
300  miles  of  railway  in  and  about  the  yards  to  handle  all 
this  great  traffic.  Some  50,000  people  live  about  the  yards 
~^d  get  their  daily  incomes  from  them.  Here  are  immense 


14 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


slaughter  houses  and  meat  packing  plants,  from  which  meats 
are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Union  Stock 
Yards  and  packing  houses  are  noted  features  of  the  great 
city  of  Chicago,  and  are  daily  visited  by  tourists  from  all 
over  America  and  many  other  countries.  In  1909  there 
were  1641  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  plants  in  the 
United  States,  in  which  were  killed  and  prepared  for  food, 
over  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  farm  animals.  These  figures 
are  given  simply  to  show  something  of  the  importance  of  the 


Fig.  2.     A  view  in  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago.     Photograph  by  courtesy 
The  Farmer. 

live-stock  trade  and  of  the  part  it  must  play  in  American 
agriculture. 

The  first  use  of  animals  by  man  dates  back  to  the  days 
when  there  was  no  civilization,  when  no  written  records 
were  made,  and  the  people  lived  as  ignorant  savages.  This 
was  in  prehistoric  times,  when  the  only  implements  used 
were  very  crude  ones  made  by  hand,  of  stone,  iron,  or  copper. 
That  animals  lived  with  man  in  these  prehistoric  days,  we 
know,  because  the  bones  of  man,  and  those  of  horses,  cattle, 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  15 

and  other  animals  have  been  found  mingled  together  in  the 
remains  of  prehistoric  villages  in  Europe.  As  man  ascended 
in  the  scale  of  civilization,  we  find  that  animals  became  more 
and  more  associated  with  him  in  his  daily  life.  The  oldest 
historical  works  make  frequent  reference  to  farm  animals. 
If  one  consults  the  Bible  he  will  find  in  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
dating  back  over  2000  years  before  Christ,  repeated  reierence 
to  herdsmen  and  horses  and  asses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 
In  fact,  these  people  of  early  days  were  farmers,  and  depended 
largely  on  their  live  stock. 

The  importance  of  domestic  animals  to  man  is  to  be  seen 
in  several  ways.  There  are  some  features  of  special  interest 
to  the  student;  namely,  (a)  the  use  of  animals  for  clothing, 
(b)  for  food,  (c)  for  labor,  and  (d)  in  relation  to  maintaining 
soil  fertility.  Each  of  these  is  of  sufficient  importance  to 
justify  special  consideration. 

The  use  of  animals  for  clothing  refers  to  the  skin,  hair 
.and  wool  or  other  hairy  covering.  Earliest  man  is  supposed 
to  have  used  the  skins  of  animals  for  clothing,  especially  in 
the  cooler  regions  or  colder  parts  of  the  year. 

For  thousands  of  years  people  have  woven  cloth  from 
wool,  and  the  hair  of  camels  and  goats.  At  the  present  day 
the  making  of  cloth  from  wool  is  a  great  industry  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  Millions  of  sheep  even  now  have  their 
chief  value  in  the  wool  that  they  produce.  The  leading 
industry  of  a  number  of  English  and  American  towns  and 
cities  is  the  converting  of  wool  into  clothing;  so  we  find  there 
great  mills  employing  thousands  of  people. 

The  use  of  animals  for  food  is  of  first  importance.  It  is 
for  this  that  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  have  been  domesti- 
cated; and  the  final  end  of  all  farm  animals  except  the  horse, 
ass,  and  mule,  must  be  for  human  food.  Meat  is  a  concen- 
trated food,  rich  in  the  substances  that  give  strong  physical 


16  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

development.  It  is  said  that  the  meat-eating  nations  rule 
the  world;  and  when  we  realize  that  the  people  of  North 
America,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany  are  the 
greatest  consumers  of  this  food,  we  are  inclined  to  believe 
the  statement  to  be  true.  The  average  person  in  the  United 
States  eats  about  180  pounds  of  meat  a  year.  With  a 
population  approaching  one  hundred  million  people,  it  can 
be  easily  understood  that  an  enormous  number  of  animals 
must  be  slaughtered  for  food  each  year. 


Fig.  3.     Fattening  cattle  in  a  Western  feed  lot.     Photograph  by  courtesy 
The  Farmer. 

There  is  also  another  important  source  of  food  from  ani- 
mals, that  of  milk  and  its  products.  Cattle  have  been  so 
improved  since  domestication  began,  that  today  we  have  cows 
producing  remarkable  yields  of  milk.  A  yield  of  5000  pounds 
of  milk  a  year  is  very  common;  a  large  number  of  cows 
have  produced  10,000  pounds;  a  yield  of  15,000  pounds  of 
milk  in  a  year  from  a  single  animal  is  no  longer  remarkable. 
Milk  is  a  very  nutritious  liquid  food,  and  supplies  a  place 
in  human  diet  as  does  no  other  substance.  From  milk  is 


• 
THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  17 

t 

manufactured  cheese,  a  valuable  food  that  in  Europe  very 
generally  takes  the  place  of  meat  among  the  laboring  classes. 
Butter,  also  a  product  of  milk,  is  so  greatly  in  demand  that 
thousands  of  creameries  engage  in  its  production.  In  1910, 
there  were  twenty  million  cows  and  heifers  kept  in  the 
United  States,  primarily  for  milk.  Five  states  had  over  one 
million  dairy  cows  each. 

The  use  of  animals  for  labor,  no  doubt  dates  from  pre- 
historic days  when  man  subdued  the  horse.     With  the  culti- 


Fig.  4.     A  miniature  ox  team  in  West  Virginia.    Photograph  by  Warren  Booker. 

vation  of  the  fields,  both  cattle  and  horses  became  beasts  of 
burden  and  laborers  in  the  fields.  Cattle  are  commonly 
used  for  labor  in  parts  of  Europe,  even  dairy  cows  some- 
times being  employed  to  draw  loads.  Oxen  were  much  used 
in  pioneer  days  for  draft  work  in  America,  but  have  been 
generally  discarded  on  account  of  their  slowness,  yet  even 
today  they  may  be  seen  serving  in  place  of  horses  in  some 
parts  of  our  country.  In  the  pioneer  settlement  of  America, 
the  ox  team  proved  a  very  important  means  of  transporta- 


18  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

tion  through  the  forests  and  across  the  wide  Western  prairies. 
The  great  endurance,  steady  habits,  and  ease  of  keep,  make 
the  ox  a  favorite  with  the  pioneer. 

In  countries  other  than  our  own,  where  railways  do  not 
exist,  the  transportation  of  freight  must  be  done  by  animals, 
or  on  the  shoulders  of  men.  In  many  countries  the  people 
use  the  backs  of  animals  for  this  purpose.  In  northern 
Africa,  the  camel  is  known  as  "the  ship  of  the  desert,"  for 
on  his  back  is  carried  both  man  and  freight  from  the  interior 
to  the  coast.  In  parts  of  Asia,  the  elephant  becomes  a 
mighty  beast  of  burden,  performing  wonderful  draft  service. 
The  little  donkey,  regarded  in  America  as  simply  a  play- 
thing for  children,  is  widely  used  over  the  world  as  a  burden 
bearer.  Thus  we  see  that  domestic  animals,  even  today, 
play  a  very  important  part  in  moving  merchandise  and  per- 
forming labor.  Although  modern  methods  of  transporta- 
tion care  for  enormous  quantities  of  freight,  the  fact  is  that 
the  demand  for  the  work  horse  does  not  diminish.  The 
draft  work  on  our  farms  must  be  very  largely  accomplished 
by  the  horse;  while  even  in  the  city,  in  spite  of  the  expensive 
motor  truck,  the  horse  is  considered  indispensable  in  a 
large  amount  of  business.  Professor  T.  F.  Hunt  states* 
that  in  England  it  is  estimated  that  two  horses  will  cultivate 
80  acres  of  light  and  sandy  soil,  or  60  acres  of  heavy,  or  clay, 
soil.  In  the  United  States,  it  appears  that  one  horse  or  mule 
of  working  age  is  kept  for  every  30  acres  of  improved  land; 
but  in  level  prairie  sections,  far  more  service  than  this  indi- 
cates is  expected. 

The  use  of  domestic  animals  in  maintaining  soil  fertil- 
ity has  long  been  recognized  as  of  great  importance.  The 
earliest  writers  on  agriculture,  who  lived  just  prior  to  the 
Christian  era,  about  two  thousand  years  ago,  wrote  more  or 

*Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  1908,  p.  11. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  19 

of  the  value  of  manures  in  keeping  the  soil  fertile.  The 
farmer  of  those  days  learned  from  experience  that  if  he  took 
a  crop  from  the  land  one  year,  that  the  next  harvest  from 
the  same  soil  would  be  smaller  unless  manure  was 
used  to  replace  the  fertility  removed  in  the  crop.  Thus  we 
see  that  20  centuries  ago  the  farmer  learned  that  he  must 
replace  fertility  in  his  soil  if  he  expected  to  reap  abun- 
dant harvests.  To  secure  this  necessary  fertility,  he  used 
the  manure  provided  by  farm  animals;  and  much  was  written 
about  the  value  of  the  excrement  from  different  kinds  of 
animals,  and  the  preservation  of  manures. 

In  very  recent  times,  artificial  fertilizers  have  come  into 
extensive  use.  But  in  spite  of  this  fact,  the  natural  manures 
of  animals  have  been  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  of  most  regions  where  high-class  farming 
is  practiced.  There  are  lands  in  Europe  today,  said  to  have 
been  cultivated  for  2000  years,  that  grow  great  crops,  made 
possible  by  the  use  of  animal  manures.  This  statement 
may  be  accepted  as  a  fact,  that,  except  in  the  case  of  some 
great  river  valleys,  like  the  Nile,  which  are  enriched  by  annual 
overflow,  no  agricultural  region  has  continued  to  grow  abun- 
dant harvests  without  the  aid  of  manure  from  domestic  ani- 
mals. Each  year  the  wheat  fields  of  Canada  and  the  corn 
fields  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  yield  in  reduced  amounts  per 
acre,  unless  fertility  replaces  that  removed  by  the  crop. 
Experience  has  also  shown  that  where  farmers  keep  the  most 
live  stock,  there  the  crops  are  most  abundant  and  the  people 
most  prosperous. 

We  purchase  commercial  fertilizers  to  restore  fertility 
to  the  soil;  but  these  lack  one  thing  of  great  importance 
found  in  stable  manures,  and  that  is  vegetable  matter,  which 
is  as  necessary  to  the  soil  as  is  the  chemical  nutriment.  The 
rotted  manure  in  the  soil  makes  it  more  porous  and  mellow 


20  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

and  permits  the  entrance  of  air  and  the  growth  of  roots 
through  it  more  freely  than  occurs  where  no  vegetable 
mould  is  present.  Interesting  experiments  conducted  for 
more  than  70  continuous  years  on  the  same  land,  in  England, 
at  Rothamsted  experiment  station,  showed  that  wheat 
grown  on  unmanured  land  yielded  just  about  12  bushels  per 
acre,  while  a  yield  of  about  40  bushels  occurred  where 
stable  manure  was  used.  A  ton  of  average  stable  manure  is 
considered  to  contain  about  $2.50  worth  of  plant  food. 
Professor  Roberts  has  figured*  that  the  average  value  of  the 
manure  produced  by  a  cow  each  day  is  eight  cents,  while 
that  of  a  horse  is  worth  about  a  half  cent  less.  The  value  of 
stable  manure,  however,  depends  upon  the  feed  the  animal 
gets.  Feed  rich  in  grain  makes  a  more  valuable  manure 
than  that  from  hay  only,  and  so  will  return  more  fertility 
to  the  soil. 

The  animal  is  a  machine  for  changing  coarse  into  fine 
material.  The  ideal  kind  of  farming  combines  the  growing  of 
grass  and  grain  and  the  feeding  of  these  to  the  animals  of 
the  farm.  These  raw  crops  are  thus  converted  into 
concentrated  and  high  priced  products,  as  represented  in 
meat,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  or  breeding  stock.  A  large  per- 
centage of  the  food  consumed  returns  to  the  farm  to  keep 
up  its  fertility.  Some  forms  of  stock  farming  remove  but  very 
little  of  the  actual  soil  fertility.  One  reason  why  dairy- 
cattle  farming  meets  with  so  much  favor  is  because  of  the 
small  amount  of  fertility  sold  from  the  farm  in  milk  or 
butter.  Professor  Vivian  states*  that  the  fertilizing  value 
of  a  ton  of  butter  is  but  44  cents,  and  that  5000  pounds  of 
milk  contain  but  $4.89  worth  of  fertility.  As  much  as  80 

*Bulletin  56,  Cornell  University  experiment  station. 
tFirst  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  1908,  p.  120-121. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  LIVE  STOCK  21 

or  85  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  food  or  crop  becomes  animal 
excrement,  and  thus  is  returned  to  the  soil  for  its  up-building. 
When,  as  in  case  of  dairy-cattle  farming,  much  more  grain 
is  fed  than  is  grown  on  the  farm,  then  the  land  steadily  im- 
proves in  its  producing  capacity.  The  best  examples  of 
intelligent  general  farming  are  to  be  found  where  herds 
and  flocks  are  kept  as  important  features  of  a  well-balanced 
farm  system.  Where  the  special  business  is  stock  farming, 
then  the  final  product  in  its  concentrated  form  will  yield  far 


Fig.  5.     Sheep  on  a  Scotch  mountainside,  with  no  vegetation  but  grass.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

more  important  and  profitable  returns  in  the  long  run 
than  will  any  other  method.  One  hundred  acres  of  grain 
shipped  a  thousand  miles  require  a  large  expenditure  of  labor 
and  money,  while  this  same  crop,  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
centrated product  like  butter  or  meat,  may  be  transported 
at  relatively  much  less  expense. 

Stock  farming  is  adapted  to  the  cheaper  and  rougher 
lands.  Much  land  that  might  not  be  used  for  other  purposes 
can  be  devoted  to  pasturing  farm  animals.  The  grass  on  the 


22  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

hills  is  usually  finer  and  sweeter  than  on  the  lowlands.  In 
various  parts  of  the  wo'rld  where  the  land  is  naturally  poor 
or  of  a  rough  character,  stock  farming  is  an  important  indus- 
try. In  fact,  no' other  kind  of  farming  is  so  well  adapted  to 
these  conditions.  On  the  Cheviot  Hills  of  Scotland,  the 
principal  industry  is  that  of  sheep  raising,  grass  and  sheep 
being  the  two  crops.  In  Switzerland,  high  up  on  the  moun- 
tain sides  are  pastures  which  annually  furnish  feed  for  many 
dairy  cows.  On  the  rough,  cheap  hillsides  of  New  England, 
dairy  cattle  are  the  most  important  source  of  income  to  the 
farmer.  On  the  high,  grassy  hills  of  eastern  Ohio,  western 
Pennsylvania,  and  West  Virginia,  are  to  be  found  the  largest 
flocks  of  sheep  in  this  country  east  of  the  Missouri  River. 

In  the  Southwest  and  far  West  of  the  United  States,  on 
the  cheaper  rolling  or  broken  lands,  will  be  found  extensive 
herds  and  flocks.  In  the  Northwest,  among  the  cut-over 
lands  that  have  been  deprived  of  their  timber  by  the  lumber- 
men, dairy  cattle  and  dairymen  are  being  developed  on  a 
greater  scale  than  elsewhere  in  America.  In  fact  the  farmer 
generally  plans  on  the  use  of  his  cheaper,  poorer  lands  as 
pasture  for  stock.  Rightly  handled,  these  lands  in  most 
cases  greatly  increase  in  producing  capacity  and  value.  In- 
asmuch as  live  stock  also  finds  an  appropriate  place  on  the 
more  fertile  and  level  farms,  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that 
animals  are  adapted  to  greater  extremes  of  soil  and  land  con- 
ditions than  are  the  staple  crops.  Thus  animals  in  a  world- 
wide sense  become  subjects  of  great  importance  and  interest. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

The  origin  of  the  horse  was  for  many  years  not  well  under- 
stood. It  used  to  be  thought  that  the  domestic  horse 
was  descended  from  the  wild  ass  that  lived  in  Africa  and  Asia. 
It  is  now  pretty  well  agreed  that  the  horse  of  today  is 
descended  from  animals  that  lived  in  past  geological  times. 
Fossil  remains  of  horses  have  been  found  in  different  parts  of 
North  and  South  America  and  in  Europe.  These  are  known 
as  prehistoric  horses,  because  they  lived  on  the  earth  before 
man  left  any  recorded  history. 

The  prehistoric  horse  in  the  earliest  geological  times,  say 
three  million  years  ago,  was  very  small.  He  was  probably 
about  as  big  as  a  fox  terrier,  and  is  known  as  the  "dawn 
horse."  During  the  development  of  the  earth's  surface,  the 
prehistoric  horse  passed  through  gradual  and  very  important 
changes.  There  was  an  increase  in  size,  and  his  body,  legs, 
and  head  became  more  and  more  like  those  of  the  modern 
horse.  Many  parts  of  the  skeletons  of  these  early  horses 
have  been  found  in  North  America,  especially  in  the  far 
West,  in  Wyoming  and  the  Bad  Lands  of  that  section. 
Scientific  men  have  put  the  fossil  parts  of  these  horses 
together  so  completely  that  their  development  is  clearly  under- 
stood. From  this  first  period  up  to  the  last,  skeletons  more 
or  less  complete  have  been  found,  showing  the  gradual 
increase  in  size  and  change  of  character  through  which  this 
prehistoric  horse  passed. 

So  we  know  that  the  horse  has  lived  in  America  for 
millions  of  years.  Just  when  the  first  domesticated  ones 


24 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


25 


developed  here,  however,  we  do  not  know  unless  from  those 
brought  here  from  Europe  by  Columbus  and  the  early 
explorers. 

How  human  beings  came  to  use  the  horse,  we  do  not 
It  is  thought  that  man  first  used  wild  ones  for  food, 


Fig.  7.     A  wild  pony  captured  in  central  Asia,  owned  by  the  New  York  Zoo- 
logical Park.     Photograph  by  courtesy  Dr.  W.  T.  Hornaday,  Director. 

and  later  for  carrying  burdens.  We  have  some  forms  of 
ponies  at  the  present  time  that  are  supposed  to  be  closely 
related  in  appearance  to  the  more  recent  prehistoric  horse. 
Some  years  ago  in  central  Asia,  true  wild  horses  of  pony  size 


26  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

were  discovered  by  a  famous  Russian  explorer.  These  and 
the  rough  ponies  of  Iceland  and  northern  Europe  are  prob- 
ably closely  related  to  the  latest  form  of  prehistoric  horses. 

The  development  of  the  breeds  of  horses  has  been  due 
to  different  conditions.  Climate,  food,  and  man,  have 
each  had  a  very  important  influence.  A  mild  climate  and 
abundant  food  no  doubt  caused  the  horse  to  become  gradu- 
ally larger  than  where  the  climate  was  cold  and  food  not 
abundant.  The  Shetland  pony  comes  from  a  region  in  the 
North  Sea  where  the  weather  is  very  severe  and  food  is  never 
plentiful.  So  this  pony  on  its  native  island  is  very  small. 
In  his  American  home,  however,  on  the  Western  prairie, 
where  food  is  abundant,  arid  the  climate  mild,  he  develops 
into  a  greater  size.  The  horses  from  hot  climates  have 
always  been  more  active  than  those  from  cold.  Thus  in 
northern  Africa  the  Arab  horse  has  developed  into  an  animal 
full  of  grace  and  activity.  So  we  see  that  breeds  probably 
gradually  developed  in  certain  localities,  and  that  different 
causes  helped  to  bring  about  the  final  result.  There  are 
many  breeds  of  horses  and  ponies  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  The  following,  however,  are  the  only  ones  common 
in  America,  that  should  especially  interest  us. 

The  Arab  horse  originated  in  the  desert  region  of  northern 
Africa,  where  he  has  been  known  since  long  before  the  time 
of  Christ.  The  Arab  is  a  saddle  horse,  but  usually  is  a  pony 
in  size.  The  horses  from  Arabia  and  the  Orient  have  had  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  improvement  of  the  horse  in  Europe. 
Between  1700  and  1800,  many  Oriental  horses  were  taken  to 
England.  Their  blood  was  mingled  with  the  horses  of  that 
country,  and  especially  with  the  race  horse  type,  by  which 
a  great  improvement  in  form  and  speed  was  secured.  Arab 
horses  should  be  from  14  to  14^  hands  high,  have  beauti- 
ful, intelligent  heads;  backs  especially  suited  to  the  saddle; 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  27 

and  have  strong,  muscular  quarters  and  legs.  The  pure 
Arabian  may  be  gray,  white,  bay,  chestnut,  or  black.  He 
is  not  of  special  value  in  America.  He  was  first  brought 
here  about  150  years  ago,  though  but  few  pure-bred  ones 
are  here  now.  The  white  or  spotted  horses  often  seen  with 
circuses,  are  rarely  pure-bred,  and  perhaps  come  from 
Turkey,  Barbary,  or  elsewhere  in  the  Orient,  or  have  been 
foaled  in  America. 

The  Thoroughbred  horse  is  of  British  breeding.  In 
early  days  in  England  the  horse  was  used  largely  for  war. 
He  had  to  be  strong,  in  order  to  carry  men  who  wore  heavy 
coats  of  mail.  After  armor  became  unpopular,  the  people 
began  to  make  more  use  of  horses  for  other  purposes.  King 
James  the  First,  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
established  the  race  track,  and  since  then  horse  racing  has 
been  very  popular  in  that  country  and  in  France.  It  was 
then  that  the  development  of  the  Thoroughbred  began. 
The  people  wanted  a  race  horse.  They  took  their  native 
light  horses  that  showed  speed  and  improved  them  by  the  use 
of  Arab,  Turk,  and  other  racing  blood  imported  from  Africa, 
Turkey,  and  France.  The  people  became  much  interested 
in  breeding  these  running  horses,  and  as  a  result,  developed 
the  Thoroughbred  into  the  fastest  and  best-bred  horse  in  the 
world.  Three  imported  Oriental  horses,  the  Darley  Arabian, 
the  Byerly  Turk,  and  the  Godolphin  Barb  played  a  most 
important  part  in  improving  the  early  race-horse  stock  in 
England.  Descended  from  these  were  three  English-bred 
horses,  Herod,  Eclipse,  and  Matchem,  that  are  very  famous 
ancestors  of  modern  Thoroughbreds.  This  breed  of  horses 
has  a  fine,  lean,  medium-sized  head;  a  long,  slender,  neck;  a 
narrow,  deep  chest;  a  long,  sloping  shoulder;  a  short,  strong 
back;  very  long,  muscular  hind  parts;  and  legs  that  are  short, 
lean,  and  strong,  with  the  best  of  feet.  The  skin  is  thin,  and 


28 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


the  hair  fine  and  silky.  The  most  desired  height  is  15  to 
15%  hands,  and  the  most  common  colors  are  bay,  brown, 
chestnut,  or  black,  though  there  are  other  colors.  A  fine 
disposition  and  great  courage  are  features  of  this  noted  breed. 
The  Thoroughbred  was  first  brought  to  America  in  1730, 
and  since  then  until  recently,  large  numbers  have  been 
imported.  This  horse  is  raced  under  the  saddle  with  a  man 
called  a  jockey  on  his  back.  The  fastest  record  of  a  race  of 
any  sort  was  made  by  Salvator,  who  in  New  Jersey  in  1890 

ran   a  mile   in    1 : 35J/2. 

Thoroughbreds  have 
sold  for  enormous  sums, 
Flying  Fox  having 
brought  the  highest 
price  ever  paid  for  a 
horse,  of  $187,500.  The 
Thoroughbred  has  been 
much  bred  in  America 
in  the  past  to  improve 
our  racing  stock,  but  at 
present  he  is  little  used, 
except  in  running  races 
where  gambling  is  en- 
couraged. As  betting  at  horse  races  is  a  violation  of  the 
law  in  most  states  today,  this  has  done  much  to  discourage 
the  breeding  of  Thoroughbreds  in  America.  In  England 
and  France,  conditions  are  different.  This  breed  has  had 
a  great  history,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  it  cannot  be 
popular  in  America,  except  as  connected  with  gambling. 

The  American  Saddle  Horse  is  a  breed  that  has  developed 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Missouri.  Its  ancestry  comes  with  the  mingling 
of  the  blood  of  the  Thoroughbred  and  well  made,  easy- 


Fig.  8.     Hanover,  a  famous  Thoroughbred 
sire.     Photograph   by  the  author. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HOR8E8 


29 


moving,  native  saddle  stock.  A  Thoroughbred  horse 
named  Denmark,  sired  by  an  imported  horse,  was  one  of  the 
most  famous  early  sires  of  this  breed.  The  American  Saddle 
Horse  shows  much  style  in  carriage  of  head  and  arch  of  neck 
and  tail.  He  stands  from  15  to  15J^  hands  high,  and  often 


Fig.  9. 


Kentucky's  Choice,  a    model  American  Saddle  Horse, 
by  courtesy  the  National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 


Photograph 


weighs  about  1000  pounds.  His  most  frequent  colors  are 
bay,  brown,  or  black.  This  breed  of  horses  is  growing 
more  and  more  into  favor  on  account  of  its  extremely  easy 
gait.  Saddlers  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  One  has 


30  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

the  walk-trot-canter  gaits  common  with  all  saddle  horses. 
The  other  class  has  five  gaits,  the  walk-trot-canter,  the  rack, 
and  the  running  walk  or  fox  trot,  gaits  especially  found  with 
this  breed.  If  a  horse  can  show  these  five  gaits,  he  is  called 
a  gaited  horse.  If  he  has  only  the  first  three,  he  is  known  as 
plain  gaited.  American  saddle  horses  are  in  great  demand, 
and  when  of  high  class,  and  educated  to  show  their  gaits  well, 
bring  high  prices. 

The  American  Trotter  or  Pacer  has  its  parentage  dating 
from  the  light-weight  trotting  and  running  horses  of  Great 
Britain  first  brought  to  America.  One  of  these,  a  Thorough- 
bred named  Messenger,  imported  in  1788,  through  his  great- 
grandson,  Hambletonian  10,  did  much  for  trotting  blood. 
For  many  years  we  have  had  in  this  country  a  class  of 
horses  of  the  light  harness  type,  that  are  commonly 
known  as  trotters.  They  were  so  called  because,  when  they 
moved  faster  than  a  walk,  their  gait  was  a  trot,  a  movement 
of  the  front  foot  on  one  side  and  the  hind  foot  on  the 
opposite  side  at  about  the  same  time.  The  pacer  moves 
back  or  forward  at  the  same  time,  the  feet  on  the  same  side 
of  the  body.  The  pace  is  about  three  seconds  faster 
as  a  gait  than  the  trot.  Occasionally  a  horse  may  be  taught 
to  trot  or  pace  as  desired.  Some  famous  race  horses  have  both 
trotting  and  pacing  records.  The  trotter  or  pacer  is  not  a 
true  example  of  a  breed,  because  he  has  been  mixed  so  much 
in  the  past  in  this  country  with  all  kinds  of  blood  ancestry. 
The  principal  idea  seems  to  have  been  to  get  speed.  Trotters 
of  this  sort  are  often  referred  to  as  " Standard  Bred."  That 
means  that  they  have  official  records  of  2:30  (2  minutes, 
30  seconds),  or  better,  or  are  from  stock  registered  in  the 
American  Trotting  Register.  A  nice  type  of  trotter  or  pacer 
should  weigh  around  1000  pounds,  and  have  a  lean,  intelli- 
gent head;  a  refined  and  graceful  neck;  sloping,  well  laid 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


31 


shoulders;  be  narrow  on  top  over  the  shoulders;  have  a  strong, 
fairly  level  back;  a  muscular  rump  with  tail  set  high;  a  deep, 
round  body;  and  legs  short,  clean,  and  fine  boned  and  good 
feet.  This  horse  picks  up  his  feet  with  snap,  and  moves  off 
smoothly  and  easily.  The  coat  is  of  different  colors,  with 
bay  or  brown  most  common.  The  disposition  is  generally 
good,  though  it  naturally  varies.  This  American-bred  horse 
is  the  fastest  trotter  in  the  world.  Uhlan  holds  the  world's 
trotting  record  for  the  mile,  in  the  time  of  1 :58  (one  minute, 
58  seconds);  and  Dan 
Patch  the  pacing  record 
of  1 :55)4  for  the  same  dis- 
tance. During  100  years, 
from  August  25,  1810, 
when  a  horse  named  Bos- 
ton trotted  a  mile  in 
2:48*4  to  October  9, 
1912,  when  Uhlan  trotted 
a  mile  in  1:58,  the  mile 
trotting  record  was  re- 
duced 50  seconds,  or  an 
average  of  about  one-half 
second  a  year.  Lou  Dil- 
lon, a  beautiful  little 

mare,  long  held  the  trotting  record  in  a  race  against  time, 
making  a  mile,  in  1903,  in  1:58J^.  This  record,  however, 
was  made  with  the  aid  of  a  shield  to  keep  the  wind  from 
affecting  her  speed.  There  are  many  kinds  of  records,  as 
half-mile,  mile,  two-mile,  fastest  new  performer,  fastest 
mare,  etc.  Thousands  of  horses  have  trotted  a  mile  in  2 :30, 
or  better,  and  many  even  as  fast  as  2:10. 

There  are  a  number  of  famous  trotting  and  pacing  fami- 
lies, of  which  the  Hambletonian,  Mambrino,  Clay,  Pilot, 


Fig.  10.  Uhlan,  a  trotter  with  record 
of  1:58.  Photograph  by  courtesy  the 
National  Stockman  and  Farmer* 


32 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


and  Morgan  are  the  best  known.  Among  the  most  famous 
trotters  that  have  lived  in  recent  years  are  the  following: 
Maud  S.  2:08%,  Nancy  Hanks  2:04,  Cresceus  2:02J4,  The 
Harvester  2:01,  Lou  Dillon  1:58^,  and  Uhlan  1:58. 
Among  pacers  are  Hal  Pointer  2 :05  J4,  Star  Pointer  1 :59 J4, 
Minor  Heir  1:59,  and  Dan  Patch  1:55J^.  Trotters  and 
pacers  have  sold  for  very  high  prices.  Arion,  the  trotter,  sold 


Fig.   11.     Angus  Pointer,  a  2:00  pacer.      Photograph  by  the  author. 

for  $150,000,  and  Dan  Patch,  the  pacer,  was  purchased  for 
$60,000.  Trotting  and  pacing  horses  have  no  great  value 
outside  of  purposes  for  which  horses  of  light  weight  can  be  used, 
euch  as  driving,  racing,  and  in  certain  kinds  of  business  where 
no  special  draft  power  is  required.  Our  people  would  be 
much  better  off  today  if  we  raised  but  a  limited  number  of 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  33 

horses  of  this  kind  which  we  often  call  roadsters,  and  only 
the  higher  grades  of  these. 

The  Hackney  horse  is  a  breed  that  was  first  produced  in 
eastern  England,  especially  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  counties. 
In  these  regions  the  trotting  gait  has  long  been  popular.  The 
word  Hackney  means  "nag,"  and  the  term  has  been  used 


Fig.  12.     Kathleen,  a  model  Hackney  mare,     Photograph   by  courtesy 
F.  C  Stevens. 

there  for  centuries.  The  claim  is  made  that  this  breed  began 
important  development  about  1755,  with  a  horse  called 
Shales.  He  traced  back  to  the  Darley  Arabian,  to  which  the 
Thoroughbred  is  related.  The  Hackney  is  very  common  in 
England,  but  not  in  America.  It  is  a  breed  that  varies  quite 


84 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


a  good  deal  in  size,  ranging  from  a  pony  to  a  good-sized 
carriage  horse.  When  of  suitable  size,  standing  about  16 
hands  high,  it  is  what  is  known  as  a  heavy  harness  or  car- 
riage horse.  A  Hackney  of  good  type,  is  very  attractive  of 
head,  has  a  long,  arching  neck,  a  fuller  chest  than  a  trotter,  is 
strong  and  short  of  back,  has  a  long,  full  rounded  hind 
quarter;  a  beautiful  round, smooth  body, and  stands  squarely 


Fig.  13.      The  Harvester,  the  noted  trotter,  with  Ed.  Geers,  his  very  famous 
trainer,  in  the  sulky.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

on  short,  clean-cut  legs  and  good  feet.  Chestnut  is  a  very 
popular  color,  as  is  bay  and  brown.  This  horse  is  noted  for 
the  powerful  manner  in  which  he  moves  the  legs  in  the  trot. 
He  has  a  bold  stride,  lifting  the  knees  higher  than  does  any 
other  breed,  and  carrying  the  hind  legs  forward  with  dis- 
tinct power.  The  Hackney  gait  is  a  model  in  the  opinion 
of  many  lovers  of  high-class  carriage  horses.  If  he  is  what  is 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


35 


termed  a  high  actor,  that  is,  moves  his  knees  up  high  rather 
than  far  forward,  he  will  have  a  short  stride  which  is  some- 
what slow,  and  is  termed  a  "  trappy  gait."  The  Hackney  in 
his  native  land  is  rather  noted  as  a  horse  with  considerable 
speed,  and  most  excellent  records  have  been  made  in  driving 
over  country  roads.  This  is  the  most  popular  breed  in  the 
stables  of  wealthy  men  who  keep  fine  carriage  teams,  but 
in  recent  years  the  automobile  has  greatly  injured  the  busi- 
ness of  breeding  such  horses.  The  Hackney  has  been  exten- 
sively distributed  over 
Europe,  North  and  South 
America  and  Australia. 

The  French  Coach 
horse  originated  in 
France.  The  people  of 
that  country  have  for 
centuries  shown  much  in- 
terest in  horse  breeding. 
The  famous  Napoleon, 
over  a  hundred  years  ago, 
took  an  active  interest 
in  developing  high-class 
horses.  The  people  of 
France  are  great  lovers 
of  racing,  and  this  breed  came  into  prominence  for  that  pur- 
pose. Some  of  the  speed  of  the  French  Coach  is  inherited 
from  the  Thoroughbred  and  Hackney,  many  of  which  have 
been  taken  from  England  to  France.  The  French  govern- 
ment encouraged  the  people  to  breed  these  horses,  partly  for 
the  army,  and  partly  to  give  France  a  valuable  carriage 
horse.  The  French  government  has  extensive  stables  of 
valuable  horses,  and  has  produced  in  these  many  very  fine 
animals.  French  Coach  horses  are  usually  bay,  brown,  or 


Fig.  14.  Decorateur,  a  French  Coach 
stallion,  imported  by  McLaughlin  Bros,  of 
Ohio.  Photograph  by  E.  H.  Mickle. 


36  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

chestnut,  though  there  are  other  colors.  These  horses  are 
much  like  the  other  typical  carriage  horses  in  style  and 
appearance,  and  do  not  have  quite  so  trappy  a  gait  as  the 
Hackney.  There  are  very  few  pure-bred  horses  of  the 
French  Coach  breed  in  America,  although  they  have  been 
imported  for  many  years.  Probably  more  have  been  brought 
to  Ohio  and  Illinois  than  elsewhere. 

The  German  Coach  horse  comes  from  northwest  Ger- 
many. In  this  region  the  breed  has  been  kept  for  centuries. 
The  government  takes  an  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the 
horse,  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  France.  The  German 
Coach  horse  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  other  carriage 
breeds  of  horses,  and  lacks  the  speed  and  action  of  either  the 
Hackney  or  French  Coach.  These  horses  are  usually  bay, 
black,  or  brown  in  color,  and  stand  from  16  to  16J/£  hands 
high.  Not  many  horses  of  this  breed  are  being  brought  to 
America  today.  Men  who  formerly  bought  carriage  horses 
for  driving,  now  use  automobiles  instead. 

The  Percheron  horse  is  also  of  French  origin.  There  is 
a  small  section  of  France  called  La  Perche,  which  is  about 
100  miles  southwest  of  Paris.  It  is  a  beautiful,  rolling  coun- 
try, where  the  farmers  have  fine  water,  sweet  grass,  and  fer- 
tile fields.  In  this  region  the  Percheron  originated.  The 
breed  is  probably  about  100  years  old,  but  it  has  passed 
through  important  changes  during  that  time.  Fifty  years 
ago  Percherons  were  not  as  big  as  now,  and  they  could  trot 
quite  fast  along  the  highways.  The  demands  of  Americans 
during  the  past  25  years  have  caused  the  French  to  develop 
a  larger  size  in  these  horses.  It  is  now  the  most  popular 
draft  breed  in  America.  Mature  stallions  weigh  from  1700 
to  2000  pounds,  and  mature  mares  from  1500  to  1800  pounds. 
The  height  is  from  16  to  17  hands.  The  color  is  usually 
either  gray  of  some  shade,  or  black,  though  bay  or  brown 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


37 


occurs  occasionally.  These  horses  are  very  massive  appear- 
ing, when  of  the  best  type,  having  big  bodies,  strong  wide 
backs,  powerful  hind  quarters,  muscular  legs,  and  splendid 
feet.  The  legs  are  free  from  long  hairs,  this  being  one  of  the 
smooth-legged  breeds.  The  Percheron  foot  is  especially 
shapely,  of  fine  texture  and  proper  size.  Good  specimens  of 


Fig.  15.  Hautbois  (74026),  a  splendid  type  of  Percheron  stallion.  First 
prize  in  1911  at  International  Live  Stock  Exposition.  Imported  by  McLaugh- 
lin  Bros.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

the  Percheron  have  a  very  active  gait  and  move  off  well 
with  a  load.  We  have  no  other  draft  breed  in  America 
that  begins  to  have  as  many  representatives  as  does  this. 
Most  of  the  draft  horses  seen  in  this  country  are  largely  of 
Percheron  breeding. 


38 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  first  French  draft  horses  of  importance  brought  to 
America  came  to  Ohio  in  1851.  A  horse  named  Louis 
Napoleon,  that  was  later  taken  to  Illinois,  became  famous  for 
his  fine  colts.  Since  then,  up  to  the  present  time,  many 
draft  horses  have  been  brought  from  France  to  America, 
and  especially  to  the  states  of  the  corn  belt  north  of  the  Ohio 
River.  Very  high  prices  have  been  paid  for  these  horses, 
and  in  1909,  one  of  them,  Carnot,  a  noted  prize  winner  in 


Fig.  16.     Theresa  (49283),  a  Percheron  mare.     Photograph  by  the  author  at 
Show  of  Percheron  Society  of  France,  1908. 

France  and  America,  sold  for  $10,000.  Many  work  horses 
with  considerable  Percheron  blood  have  sold  for  from  $400 
to  $500.  In  1900  such  a  work  horse,  weighing  1910  pounds, 
sold  at  auction  in  St.  Louis  for  $730.  A  real  high-class 
matched  team  of  this  kind,  weighing  around  3500  to  3600 
pounds,  will  bring  a  big  price  in  the  market. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


39 


The  Clydesdale  horse  is  a  breed  that  was  developed 
in  southwestern  Scotland,  where  it  has  been  known  since 
about  1715.  The  Clydesdale  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
largest  draft  breeds.  It  has  certain  features  that  perhaps  are 
notable.  To  begin  with  the  feet,  they  must  be  large,  round, 
and  wide  behind  at  the  heel,  with  a  good,  elastic  frog.  The 
bones  of  the  legs  should  be  hard  and  not  round  and  meaty, 
but  the  arms  and  quarters  must  be  heavily  muscled.  The 


Fig.  17. 


A  Clydesdale  horse  at  work  on  a  street  in  Scotland, 
the  author. 


Photograph  by 


Scotchman  thinks  his  horse  has  the  best  of  feet  and  legs, 
and  when  either  walking  or  trotting,  that  he  has  the  best 
movement  of  any  draft  horse.  It  is  a  fact  that  many  Clydesdale 
horses  move  with  splendid  action,  and  carry  their  feet  with 
snap  and  trueness.  This  is  a  hairy-legged  breed,  with  long 
hair  on  the  back  of  both  front  and  hind  legs  from  the  knee 
and  the  hock  down.  The  body  of  the  Clydesdale  often  lacks 


40  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

massiveness,  so  that  these  horses  appear  shallow  of  body  and 
long  of  leg.  This  is  the  principal  criticism  of  this  breed 
today.  The  shoulders  usually  slope  well  into  the  back, 
which  accounts  for  the  easy  movement  of  this  horse.  The 
color  is  usually  bay  or  brown,  with  white  markings  on  the 
face  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the  legs.  There  are  also  chest- 
nut, black,  and  grays  occasionally  to  be  found.  The  height 
is  about  16}^  hands  for  the  matured  males.  Typical  Clydes- 
dale mares  weigh  from  1600  to  1700  pounds,  and  the  males 
two  or  three  hundred  pounds  more. 

Clydesdales  were  first  brought  to  America  in  1842,  being 
taken  to  Canada,  where  they  are  quite  common  today.  The 
breed  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  United  States,  though 
not  in  large  numbers  in  any  one  state.  Wherever  the 
Scotch  farmer  has  settled,  we  are  likely  to  find  these  horses. 
The  stallion  Baron  o'Buchlyvie  in  1911  sold  for  $47,500. 

The  Shire  horse  is  an  English  breed  of  much  the  same 
general  character  as  the  Clydesdale.  It  has  been  bred,  for 
many  years  in  England,  and  is  as  popular  with  the  English- 
man as  the  Clydesdale  is  with  the  Scotchman.  These  horses 
differ  in  certain  important  respects,  though  they  have  the 
same  color  and  markings,  as  a  rule,  and  both  have  the  hairy 
legs.  The  Shire  is  a  somewhat  larger  and  more  massive 
breed  than  the  Clydesdale,  and  has  a  wider  back  and  deeper, 
heavier  body.  For  many  years  the  Shire  was  considered 
very  slow  in  movement,  and  lacked  good  action  and  quality. 
In  recent  years,  English  breeders  have  done  much  to  improve 
them,  and  the  criticisms  of  slow  movement  and  coarseness 
are  not  as  correct  as  they  once  were.  The  criticism  due  to 
the  hairy  legs  is  still  made,  and  this  breed,  like  the  Clydesdale, 
is  not  at  all  common  in  America.  These  horses  have  been 
brought  to  America  in  small  numbers  since  about  1836, 
when  one  was  brought  to  Canada.  Perhaps  more  of 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  41 

these  horses  are  in  Illinois  and  Iowa  than  in  any  of  the  other 
states.  In  1910  a  Shire  stallion  named  Dan  Patch  sold 
at  Chicago  for  $10,000. 

The  Belgian  horse  comes  from  one  of  the  smallest  coun- 
tries in  Europe.     Belgium  has  done  much  to  improve  the 


Fig.  18.     Ilosco  V  (12554),  a  yearling  Shire  horse,  owned  by  Illinois  University. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  Prof.  J.  L.  Edmonds. 

draft  horse,  and  the  Government  has  paid  out  large  sums  of 
money  to  develop  the  breed.  The  people  take  much  interest  in 
the  work,  and  the  draft  horse  shows  of  this  breed  alone  at 
Brussels  are  among  the  very  greatest  exhibitions  in  Europe. 
Draft  horses  have  been  bred  in  Belgium  a  very  long  time,  but 


42 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


they  have  been  most  improved  since  about  1850.  The 
Belgian  is  a  very  compact,  wide,  deep,  short-legged  sort  of 
draft  horse.  He  has  a  small  head,  perhaps,  for  his  size;  has 
a  broad  chest;  very  wide,  short  back;  a  deep  body;  a  rump 
which  may  be  quite  wide  and  muscular,  yet  somewhat  steep; 
very  heavily  muscled,  short  legs;  and  medium-sized  feet 
which  have  been  criticised  sometimes  as  being  too  small  for 


Fig.  19.     A  Belgian  mare. 


Photograph  by  courtesy   A.  Van  Schelle 
of  Belgium. 


such  a  heavy  horse.  The  legs  are  free  from  hair,  like  the 
Percheron.  The  Belgians  show  considerable  activity  when  in 
motion,  and  are  powerful  draft  animals  for  their  weight, 
which  ranges  from  1600  to  2000  pounds,  usually,  according 
to  sex.  They  stand  about  16  hands  high.  In  disposition 
these  horses  are  very  gentle  and  can  be  easily  handled.  Their 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


color  is  usually  bay,  brown,  chestnut,  or  roan.  These  horses 
were  first  brought  to  America  in  1866.  In  recent  years,  a 
great  many  Belgians  have  been  imported,  and  the  breed  has 
grown  much  in  favor,  being  second  in  this  regard,  probably, 
to  the  Percheron.  It  is  getting  quite  a  foothold  in  the  Middle- 
western  states. 

The  Shetland  pony  has  its  native  home  on  the  Shetland 
Islands,  about  200  miles  north  of  Scotland.  These  are  very 
rocky  islands,  and  produce  but  little  feed  for  live  stock.  The 
climate  is  very  cold  and  rough,  and  the  winters  are  most 
severe.  There  are  about  120  islands,  and  Mainland  is  the 
largest.  These  ponies 
have  been  bred  here  per- 
haps for  centuries.  They 
vary  quite  a  good  deal  in 
type.  The  best  sort  of 
Shetland  stands  from  36 
to  42  inches  high,  and  is 
a  shaggy,  drafty-looking 
little  pony,  especially  in 
the  winter.  These  ponies 
should  really  be  miniature 
draft  horses,  with  full  chests,  wide  backs,  long  ribs,  and 
long,  wide,  level  rumps.  The  head  should  not  be  too  fine, 
and  should  have  a  broad  forehead,  and  a  nice,  open,  clear 
eye,  showing  the  pleasant  disposition  usual  with  ponies  of 
this  breed.  There  are  different  colors,  but  bay,  brown,  and 
black  are  most  frequent.  Shetland  ponies  are  common  all 
over  eastern  America,  and  are  great  favorites  with  children. 
They  are  very  patient  and  are  safe  pets.  In  England,  large 
numbers  have  been  used  in  the  coal  mines  to  haul  coal  cars. 

The  Ass  is  commonly  referred  to  in  America  as  the 
jack,  this  being  the  male,  while  the  female  is  known  as  the 


Fig.  20.     A   Shetland  Pony.     First   prize   at 
Glasgow.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


44 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


jennet.  This  animal  is  descended  from  the  wild  ass  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  There  are  several  breeds  of  the  domestic 
ass,  most  of  which  were  introduced  to  America  from  Spain. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War,  George  Washington  was  pre- 
sented with  a  male  and  female  ass  by  the  King  of  Spain. 
The  jack  usually  stands  about  15  hands  high,  and  the 
jennets  14 J/£.  The  hair  is  usually  brown  or  black  with 
a  creamy  shade  around  the  muzzle  or  along  the  underside  of 
the  body.  The  ass  has  long,  large  ears,  rather  a  large  head 


Fig.  21.    A  donkey  and  load  of  peat  in  Ireland.    Photograph  by  the  author. 

for  the  body,  a  short,  stubby  mane,  a  round  but  not  very 
large  body,  rather  large  legs,  and  small  feet.  The  tail  is 
fine,  with  simply  a  brush  at  the  end.  This  animal  is  slow 
of  movement,  very  patient,  and  is  a  beast  of  burden 
used  mostly  among  poor  people  of  southern  Europe  and  parts 
of  Africa  and  Asia.  In  America  it  is  but  little  used  except- 
ing for  breeding. 

The  Mule  is  the  offspring  of  an  ass  and  mare.    Mules 
differ  much  in  size  and  value,  and  have  features  of  both 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  45 

parents.  The  head,  mane,  tail,  and  feet  resemble  those  of 
the  ass.  The  mules  also  bray  like  the  ass.  Mules  show  more 
fineness  of  bone  and  more  activity  than  the  ass,  and  are  used 
entirely  for  draft  purposes.  Large,  strong  heavy  mules  are 
worth  more  money  than  the  small  ones.  The  best  mules 
resemble  the  high  class  draft  horse  in  form.  In  the  mule 
markets,  these  animals  are  classed  according  to  their  size 
and  use,  as  plantation,  lumber,  railroad,  mine,  and  levee 
mules.  St.  Louis  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  America. 
The  average  price  for  mules  is  higher  than  that  for  horses. 
Mules  are  invaluable  for  draft  purposes,  and  are  commonly 
used  all  over  the  Southern  states.  They  are  more  easily 
kept  than  horses,  and  possess  more  endurance  and  are 
always  patient. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  earliest  form  of  the  horse,  and  where  was  he  found? 

2.  Give  some  of  the  conditions  that  influenced  the  development  of 
breeds. 

3.  Why  were  Herod,  Eclipse,  and  Matchem  famous? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  trotter  and  a  pacer? 

5.  Describe  a  Hackney  horse  and 'his  gait. 

6.  What  conditions  promoted  the  coach  horse  in  France? 

7.  Describe  a  modern  Percheron. 

8.  In  what  respect  does  the  Scotchman  think  the  Clydesdale  a 
superior  horse? 

9.  How  do  the  Clydesdale  and  Belgian  differ  hi  color? 

10.  Tell  of  the  Shetland  Islands  and  their  ponies. 

11.  Describe  the  special  features  of  the  ass. 

12.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  found  in  your  neighborhood? 

13.  Learn,  if  possible,  of  the  most  important  draft  horse  that  has 
been  known  in  your  community.    Why  was  he  important? 

14.  Learn  of  the  breeding,  if  any,  of  the  saddle  horses  in  use  in 
your  neighborhood. 

15.  Who  owns  the  largest  mule  in  your  neighborhood?    Can  you 
give  his  height  and  weight? 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 

The  first  early  cattle  of  which  we  have  any  information 
existed  in  Europe  in  prehistoric  times.  The  bones  and  skele- 
tons of  two  very  different  types  of  cattle  have  been  found 
in  Great  Britain  and  parts  of  Europe.  One  of  these  was  very 
much  larger  than  the  cattle  of  today,  and  has  been  called 
the  Giant  Ox.  The  other  is  much  smaller  and  finer  of  bone. 
The  skeletons  of  these  two  forms  are  quite  similar  to  the 
cattle  of  our  own  time.  Many  bones  of  these  animals  have 
been  found,  and  it  is  believed  that  even  in  the  stone  and  the 
bronze  age  the  people  had  cattle  more  or  less  domesticated. 
Pliny  and  the  earliest  historians  refer  to  swift  and  fierce  wild 
bulls,  called  Uri,  that  were  found  in  the  forests  and  meadows 
of  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  early  Romans  captured  specimens 
of  these  wild  bulls  and  took  them  to  Rome  and  used  them  in 
their  brutal  festivities. 

Wild  White  Cattle  have  been  known  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Wales  since  earliest  historical  times.  These  cattle 
lived  in  great  parks.  They  had  upright  horns,  were  covered 
with  shaggy  hair,  and  were  pure  white  in  color,  except  the 
hair  about  the  ears  and  muzzle,  which  was  usually  a  dark 
red  or  black.  A  number  of  small  herds  of  these  cattle  are 
kept  today  in  Great  Britain,  one  of  which  is  at  Chillingham 
Park  in  northeastern  England.  This  herd  numbers  only 
60  or  70  animals,  which  run  wild  on  an  immense  estate. 
They  have  never  been  tamed,  but  live  by  themselves  back 
among  the  hills  in  the  forests  and  meadows.  It  is  believed 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  47 

that  these  wild  cattle  are  descended  from  the  Giant  Ox,  and 
are  the  connecting  link  between  the  prehistoric  form  and 
our  domesticated  cattle  of  the  present  time. 

Shorthorn  Cattle.  This  noted  breed,  commonly  called 
Durham  cattle  years  ago,  originated  in  northeast  England, 
in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  York.  The  river  Tees  flows 
through  a  pretty  valley,  and  for  some  distance  is  the  boundary 
line  between  these  two  counties.  This  region,  many  years 
ago,  was  called  the  Teeswater  country,  and  the  large  cattle 


Fig.  22.     A  herd  of  Wild  White  Cattle  at  Vaynol  Park,  Wales.     Photograph 
by  the   author. 

found  here  in  northern  Yorkshire  were  known  as  "Teeswater 
Cattle."  In  southern  Yorkshire,  in  what  is  called  Holder- 
ness,  was  another  kind  of  cattle  having  some  things  in  com- 
mon with  the  Teeswater.  Many  of  these  were  black. 
There  were  also  red  or  red-and-white  cattle  in  other  sections 
not  far  from  here.  Some  cattle  of  superior  milking  qualities 
were  brought  over  from  Holland,  also,  in  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century.  From  these  various  sources  came  the  Short- 
horn. In  this  section  of  England  the  grazing  was  fine;  and 


48 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


the  city  of  Darlington,  by  the  river  Tees  in  Durham,  became 
in  time  a  great  cattle  market. 

The  improvement  of  the  Shorthorn  began  over  a  century 
ago.  Two  brothers,  Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  who  lived 
on  separate  farms  north  of  Darlington,  did  much  to  improve 
the  native  stock  between  1775  and  1820.  Some  have  called 
them  the  founders  of  the  Shorthorn  breed,  though  this  is 
probably  not  correct.  They  developed  their  cattle  so  that 


Fig.  23.  Ringmaster,  champion  Shorthorn  bull  at  the  International  Live 
Stock  Exposition,  1911.  Owned  by  White  and  Smith  of  Minnesota.  Photo- 
graph from  The  Farmer, 

they  matured  earlier,   fed  better,   and  had  less  waste  at 
slaughter  than  the  cattle  with  which  they  began. 

Thomas  Bates  lived  in  this  same  region,  east  of  Darling- 
ton, and  he  bred  a  type  of  large,  handsome  cattle,  noted  for 
both  beef  and  milk  production.  His  cattle  have  been  criti- 
cised for  lack  of  vigor.  He  produced  the  Duchess,  Waterloo, 
Wild  Eyes,  Oxford,  and  other  families.  Bates  died  in  1849. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  49 

Thomas  Booth,  another  great  breeder,  began  to  keep 
Shorthorns  about  1780  on  a  farm  southeast  of  Darlington, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  had  two  sons,  John  and  Richard,  who 
also  became  famous  breeders.  Their  cattle  had  thicker 
chests,  were  somewhat  rougher  in  form,  and  perhaps  better 
feeders  than  the  Bates  cattle,  and  became  very  popular. 
The  Booths  produced  the  Anna,  Isabella,  Bracelet,  Moss 
Rose,  and  some  other  families.  The  Collings,  Bates,  and 


Fig.  24.     Czarina  2nd.     A  thick  fleshed  type  of  Shorthorn  cow.     Owned  by 
Ohio  State  University.     Photograph  by  F.  H.  Haskett. 

the  Booths  were  famous  as  among  the  greatest  improvers 
of  Shorthorn  cattle  that  have  ever  lived  in  England. 

Up  in  Scotland,  in  Aberdeenshire,  where  the  winters  are 
cold  and  rough,  and  the  soil  not  the  richest,  lived  a  quiet 
man  by  the  name  of  Amos  Cruickshank.  He  developed  what 
are  known  today  as  " Scotch  Shorthorns."  They  are  noted 
for  their  early  maturity,  compact  forms,  strong  constitutions, 
and  fine  killing  qualities.  Scotch  cattle  seemed  to  produce 


50 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


less  milk  than  those  bred  by  Bates,  but  were  thicker  fleshed, 
so  that  butchers  liked  them  better.  Cruickshank  produced 
quite  a  number  of  the  most  popular  families  of  today,  among 
which  the  Violet,  Venus,  Orange  Blossom,  Brawith  Bud, 
Spicy,  and  Lovely  may  be  mentioned.  Cruickshank  died 
in  1895.  He  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  breeder  of  Short- 
horns in  the  history  of  Scotland. 


Fig.  25.     A  Shorthorn  steer  owned  by  the    Ohio   State    University, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


The  distribution  of  Shorthorns  is  world-wide.  It  is  the 
most  common  breed  of  English  speaking  countries,  and  more 
great  improvers  of  live  stock  have  been  found  among  Short- 
horn breeders  than  any  other  one  breed.  So  common  is  the 
Shorthorn,  and  so  well  is  it  suited  to  different  conditions, 
that  long  ago  it  was  nicknamed  "The  Universal  Intruder." 

The  introduction  of  the  Shorthorn  to  America  occurred 
in  1783,  when  a  few  were  imported  into  Virginia  by  Gough 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  51 

and  Miller.  These  men  imported  still  others  about  1792. 
From  this  time  on  the  Shorthorn  continued  to  be  brought  to 
the  American  states  long  the  Atlantic  coast  .  In  1834  a  very 
important  shipment  came  to  Ohio,  selected  for  the  Ohio 
Importing  Company.  Since  then  many  thousands  of  Short- 
horns have  been  imported,  and  are  found  distributed  widely 
in  North  and  South  America. 

The  Shorthorn  characteristics  are  very  distinct.  The 
color  is  red,  red-and-white,  pure  white,  or  a  mingling  of  red 
and  white  forming  what  is  called  a  roan.  It  is  one  of  our 
largest  breeds,  and  bulls 
at  maturity  should  weigh 
around  2000  pounds,  and 
the  cows  about  1400 
pounds.  These  cattle 
have  white,  waxy-colored 
horns  of  medium  size. 
The  heads  are  very  shape- 
ly, and  the  muzzle  is  pre- 
ferably flesh  color,  dark 


not     meeting     With    Fig.  26.    A  good  type  of  milking  Shorthorn. 
,  -m  Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 

approval.      They    should 

have  broad  backs,  large  bodies  and  unusually  well  developed 
hind  quarters.  Shorthorns  have  been  criticised  for  having 
plain  shoulders  and  for  being  rather  long  of  leg.  In  dispo- 
sition, the  Shorthorn  is  unexcelled.  This  is  the  largest  milk- 
producing  breed  of  beef  cattle,  many  cows  yielding  from 
6000  to  7000  pounds  of  milk.  Rose  of  Glenside,  in  one 
year  made  over  18,000  pounds  of  milk,  containing  735 
pounds  of  butter-fat,  —  a  wonderful  record.  Shorthorn  milk 
usually  contains  almost  4  per  cent  butter-fat,  and  is  of 
standard  quality.  Cattle  of  this  breed  fatten  well,  and  pro- 
duce a  very  high  class  beef.  They  are  usually  prominent 


52 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


at  shows  where  cattle  are  exhibited.  The  future  develop- 
ment of  this  breed  will  not  be  so  great  as  in  the  past,  per- 
haps, owing  to  the  increased  demand  for  special  milk  breeds; 
but  from  the  beef  standpoint,  the  Shorthorn  may  be  expected 
to  remain  popular  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

The  Hereford  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  the  county  of 
Hereford,  in  southwest  England.     There  are  many  beauti- 


Fig.  27.     Shadeland  Leo,  a  Hereford  bull  owned  by  Purdue  University. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

ful  meadows  and  grassy  hills  in  this  region.  The  cattle 
graze  here  the  year  round  and  are  rarely  kept  under  roof. 
We  know  but  little  of  the  origin  of  this  breed.  Cattle  have 
thrived  in  this  part  of  England  for  centuries.  One  noted 
English  judge  of  live  stock  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  gave 
the  opinion  that  the  Hereford-  might  have  been  the  first  breed 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


53 


on  the  island.  Some  time  before  1671,  white  faced  cattle 
were  brought  from  Holland  to  Hereford,  and  some  think  the 
Herefords  get  their  white  faces  from  these  cattle.  Late  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  common  color  of  the  breed  was 
red  with  a  white  face.  As  with  the  Shorthorn,  a  number  of 
men  became  noted  Hereford  improvers  and  did  much  for 
these  cattle.  The  Tomkins  family  is  the  most  famous  of 
early  days.  There  was  Benjamin  the  Elder,  who  died  in 
1789,  and  Benjamin  the  Younger,  who  died  in  1815.  These 
men  produced  many  famous  animals  and  did  much  for  the 


Fig.  28.    An  exhibitor's  herd  of  Herefords  at  the  fair.  Photograph  by  courtsey 
The  Farmer. 

breed.  William  Galliers,  John  Price,  and  John  Hewer 
also  did  much  to  improve  the  Hereford.  John  Hewer  sought 
for  more  size,  quality,  and  uniformity  of  color.  He  bred 
many  famous  animals  during  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
Herefords  were  first  brought  to  America  by  that  famous 
statesman,  Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky.  He  took  much 
interest  in  pure-bred  live  stock.  Mr.  W.  H.  Sotham,  a 
native  of  Hereford,  who  emigrated  to  America  in  1840, 
brought  some  of  these  cattle  to  Albany,  New  York.  Mr. 


54  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Sotham  did  much  to  make  the  breed  popular  in  this  country 
during  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

About  1875,  men  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  the  West,  who 
owned  a  great  deal  of  land,  became  interested  in  the  Here- 
ford. Since  then  these  cattle  have  become  very  popular 
in  the  grazing  sections  of  the  West,  and  are  found  in  large 
numbers  beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  Hereford  is  a  large 
breed,  carrying  as  much  size  and  weight  as  the  Shorthorn. 
The  color  is  its  most  striking  feature,  the  head  being  white, 


Fig.  29.    Black's  Ohio  Champion,  a  grade  Hereford  steer,  owned  by 
Ohio  State  University.    Photograph  by  the  author. 

as  is  often  also  the  top  of  the  neck,  the  breast,  brush  of  the 
tail,  and  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  the  rest  of  the  body 
being  red.  They  are  often  called  " White  Faces."  These 
cattle  have  wide  backs,  deep  bodies,  and  short  legs.  They 
have  beautiful  smooth  shoulders,  but  the  hind  quarters  are 
liable  to  be  somewhat  narrow,  lacking  the  fullness  of  the 
Shorthorn.  They  are  noted  feeders,  and  have  no  superiors 
as  grazers,  thriving  well  with  the  least  shelter  and  grain.  In 
disposition  they  are  rather  nervous  as  compared  with  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


55 


Shorthorn.  They  are  inferior  milkers,  though  producing  a 
fair  grade  of  milk.  The  quality  of  " rustling,"  as  they  say 
in  the  West,  fine  constitution,  and  ability  to  make  early 
beef,  has  made  the  breed  extremely  popular  in  the  far  West. 
These  cattle  are  also  popular  in  South  America  and  Aus- 


Fig.  30.    Lucy's  Prince  46183,  a  famous  prize-winning  Aberdeen  Angus  bull 
and  sire,  owned  by  Bradfute  &  Son,  of  Ohio.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

tralia,  on  account  of  requiring  but  little  attention  on  the 
range.  In  our  fat-stock  shows,  Herefords  have  made  good 
records,  for  they  produce  excellent  beef  and  kill  out  well. 

The  Aberdeen  Angus  is  a  Scotch  breed  of  cattle  that  was 
first  developed  in  and  about  the  county  of  Aberdeen,  in 


56 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


northeast  Scotland.  This  section  is  about  a  thousand  miles 
north  of  the  latitude  of  Chicago.  The  winter  climate  of 
this  region  is  rather  severe,  and  the  soil  is  not  the  best,  though 
the  grazing  is  good.  Some  think  these  animals  are  descended 
from  the  Wild  White  Cattle.  It  is  a  hornless  breed.  They 
first  became  celebrated  through  Hugh  Watson,  a  tenant 
farmer  at  Keillor.  He  loved  his  cattle  and  studied  carefully 
the  improvement  of  his  herd.  As  a  result  he  produced  more 
early  maturing,  heavier  fleshed,  and  more  compact  cattle 

than  had  before  been 
known  in  Scotland.  He 
had  a  cow  named  "Old 
Grannie"  that  lived  to  be 
36  years  old,  and  was  the 
mother  of  25  calves,  a 
wonderful  record  for  a  cow 
of  any  breed.  William 
McCombie  was  another 
famous  breeder  of  Aber- 
deen Angus  cattle.  He 

Foxy,  2ndjmzeAberdeen  Angus     improved    On    the  WOrk  of 

Watson,  and  his  cattle 
became  celebrated  for  the 
prizes  they  won  in  the  shows  of  Scotland  and  France.  Sir 
George  McPherson  Grant,  who  died  in  1907,  was  the  most 
noted  breeder  of  recent  days,  and  from  his  herd  came  some 
of  the  greatest  cattle  of  the  breed. 

The  first  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  were  imported  to  Amer- 
ica in  1873,  by  George  Grant,  of  Kansas.  Later  in  the 
seventies  a  few  head  were  taken  to  Canada,  New  York, 
Illinois  and  other  states  of  the  central  West.  It  is  only  in 
rather  recent  years  that  these  cattle  have  become  popular 
in  America.  Aberdeen  Angus  are  black  in  color,  though 


Fig.  31. 

steer  at  International  Live  Stock  Exposition. 
Shown  by  Ohio  State  University.  Photo- 
graph by  author. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


57 


occasionally  red  will  occur.  They  are  inclined  to  be  a  trifle 
prominent  in  the  shoulder,  having  only  moderately  wide 
backs,  the  loin  not  being  so  broad  as  that  of  the  Shorthorn 
or  Hereford.  The  hind  quarters  usually  are  rather  round 
and  full,  though  the  tail-head  may  be  a  bit  prominent. 
These  cattle  stand  on  short  legs,  and  are  very  compact. 
They  graze  well,  mature  very  early,  fatten  smoothly,  produce 
meat  of  the  choicest  grade,  and  kill  out  with  the  least  waste 
possible.  In  the  fat-stock  shows  in  recent  years,  no  other 
breed  has  won  so  many  grand  championships.  At  our  great 
International  Live  Stock 
Exposition  at  Chicago, 
the  Aberdeen  Angus  has 
won  a  very  large  percent- 
age cf  the  most  important 
prizes  where  breeds  com- 
peted against  one  another 
In  slaughter  tests  they 
have  dressed  out  72  per 
cent  carcass  to  offal, 
which  is  a  very  high 
record.  Some  of  the  cows 
are  good  milkers  and  pro- 
duce  an  excellent  grade  of 

milk.  In  disposition,  they  are  nervous  and  are  more  like  the 
Hereford  than  Shorthorn.  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  are  not 
extensively  bred  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  do  not  seem  to 
gain  in  popularity  there,  any  more  than  does  the  Hereford. 
Iowa  contains  more  important  herds  than  any  other  state, 
The  Galloway  is  a  beef  breed  that  originated  in  southwest 
Scotland  in  what  is  known  as  the  Galloway  country.  It  is  a 
hilly  region,  with  plenty  of  grass,  and  has  a  somewhat  cool 
and  rather  moist  climate.  These  cattle  have  been  bred 


32-   A  GaU°Sf  asu\e;£r.  Photograph  by 


58  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

here  for  centuries.  They  are  black,  though  other  colors 
formerly  occurred,  are  polled,  have  long,  shaggy  coats  of 
hair,  and  are  hardy  and  rather  wild  by  nature.  They  are 
not  quite  as  large  nor  so  compact  of  body  as  the  Aberdeen 
Angus,  and  do  not  fatten  so  easily.  They  produce  a  very 
high  grade  of  beef,  fine  of  grain  and  inclined  to  be  free  from 
extra  fat,  such  as  is  often  found  in  highly  fed  Shorthorns  or 
Herefords.  The  Galloway  is  a  breed  that  can  endure  severe 
winter  conditions  better  than  most  others,  on  account  of  the 
protection  of  a  thick  hide  and  a  long,  thick,  silky  coat  of 
hair.  Very  beautiful  robes  are  made  from  Galloway  hides 
with  the  winter  coat  of  hair.  This  breed  was  first  brought 
to  America  about  1850,  or  perhaps  some  years  before.  It  is 
not  popular  and  the  herds  are  rather  scattered,  more  being 
in  the  northwestern  states  and  in  Canada  than  elsewhere. 
The  exhibit  of  the  breed  at  the  fat-stock  shows  and  fairs  is 
usually  small  compared  with  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and 
Aberdeen  Angus. 

The  Jersey  is  strictly  a  dairy  breed  of  cattle  that  origi- 
nated on  the  island  of  Jersey.  There  is  a  small  group  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Channel  Islands  lying  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel, not  far  from  the  Normandy  coast  of  France.  Jersey 
contains  about  40,000  acres,  Guernsey  about  12,000,  and 
Alderney  very  much  less.  The  climate  here  is  quite  mild 
and  balmy  much  of  the  year.  The  cattle  live  out  of  doors 
during  a  very  long  season,  each  one  grazing  tethered  by  a 
chain  and  rope  fastened  to  an  iron  pin  in  the  ground.  The 
herds  are  small,  and  these  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  sources 
of  income  on  Jersey.  There  are  perhaps  12,000  head  on  the 
island. 

Jersey  cattle  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  stock 
in  the  neighboring  districts  of  France.  They  have  been  kept 
pure  of  blood  for  much  over  a  century.  As  early  as  1763 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


59 


the  people  on  the  island  adopted  laws  to  regulate  the  impor- 
tation of  cattle  from  France.  For  a  very  long  time  no  for- 
eign cattle  have  been  allowed  to  enter  Jersey,  except  such  as 
were  butchered  within  24  hours  after  landing.  In  1833 
the  people  organized  a  society  to  improve  the  agriculture  of 
the  island,  and  the  next  year  they  drew  up  a  scale  of  points 
for  the  bulls  and  cows.  This  was  the  first  scale  of  points 
made  for  a  breed  of  live  stock.  Since  then  it  has  been 


Fig.  33.  Raleigh's  Fairy  Boy  83767,  an  imported  Jersey  bull,  champion 
of  the  breed  at  National  Dairy  Show  and  elsewhere,  1910.  Owned  by  C.  I. 
Hudson,  of  New  York  State.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

changed  and  improved  a  number  of  times.  The  people 
made  notable  progress  in  improving  their  cattle,  and  no 
doubt  the  competition  of  the  show  ring  and  the  butter  and 
milk  tests  which  were  established,  inspired  them  to  study 
to  secure  this  improvement. 

The  Jersey  was  first  brought  to  America  about  1850, 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  men  being  the  importers. 
Since  then  large  numbers  have  been  brought  to  this  country, 


60  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

A 

and  have  been  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  so  that  now  this  is  the  most  common  dairy  breed 
of  cattle  known. 

The  Jersey  is  of  medium  size,  though  many  seem  small. 
Mature  bulls  should  weigh  around  1300  pounds,  and  the 
cows  850  pounds.  These  cattle  are  rather  lean  and  angular 
in  form,  having  attractive  heads,  medium  long  necks,  thin 
withers,  prominent  shoulders,  fairly  deep  bodies,  and  thin, 
narrow  hind  quarters.  The  thighs  should  be  thin  enough 
and  the  hocks  stand  far  enough  apart  to  provide  room  for  a 
good  sized  udder  on  mature  cows.  The  modern  so-called 
island  type  of  Jersey  has  a  beautiful  udder,  well  developed 
in  front,  with  the  teats  well  placed.  Many  Jerseys  of  Ameri- 
can breeding  have  poor  front  udders,  and  they  are  criticised 
for  having  small  and  poorly  placed  teats.  The  color  is 
fawn,  but  of  various  shades,  some  being  the  color  of  the  deer, 
others  very  dark  and  some  much  lighter  yellow.  White 
occurs,  though  it  is  not  popular,  and  but  few  animals  have 
white  markings.  The  most  striking  features  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Jersey  are  the  color;  the  wedge  form;  the  short, 
dished  face ;  the  prominent,  beautiful  eye ;  the  fine  bone,  and 
the  deer-like  character  of  the  calves.  The  disposition  of  the 
cows  is  very  good,  but  the  bulls  at  maturity  are  liable  to  be 
nervous  and  are  often  cross.  Jerseys  mature  very  young, 
compared  with  other  breeds. 

The  Jerseys  have  always  been  noted  for  their  milk,  which 
is  rich  in  butter-fat,  and  is  usually  yellow  in  color.  The 
skin  of  these  cattle  show  something  of  this  rich  yellow  color, 
especially  in  the  small,  wax-colored  horns,  in  the  ears,  and 
about  the  udder.  The  Jersey  produces  a  fair  amount  of 
milk,  and  many  cows  have  made  over  5000  pounds  a  year 
each.  Quite  a  number  have  produced  over  10,000  pounds, 
and  Jacoba  Irene  produced  over  17,000  pounds  in  a  year. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


61 


Jersey  milk  usually  contains  4J/2  to  5  per  cent  of  fat,  and 
makes  a  high  grade  of  butter.  Many  cows  have  produced 
enough  milk  in  a  week  to  yield  14  or  more  pounds  of  butter. 
A  number  have  records  of  over  20  pounds  in  a  week.  Many 
Jerseys  have  produced  enough  milk  within  a  year  to  yield 
500  pounds  of  butter,  and  some  have  even  exceeded  this. 


Fig.  34. 


Golden  Sultana,  a  very  beautiful  Jersey  cow,  imported  by  T.   S. 
Cooper  &  Sons.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


In  one  year  Jacoba  Irene  made  953  pounds  of  milk  fat,  which 
is  a  wonderful  record.  Jerseys  are  common  in  the  more 
thickly  populated  states,  and  are  great  favorites  at  the  fairs. 
In  the  breed  tests  of  dairy  cattle  held  at  the  great  exposi- 
tions, the  Jerseys  have  usually  ranked  at  the  top,  especially 
at  Chicago  in  1893,  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904.  Cattle  of  this 
breed  have  brought  very  high  prices.  In  1911,  the  bull 


62  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Noble  of  Oaklands  sold  for  $15,000,  and  the  cow  Lady  Viola 
for  $7,500,  the  highest  prices  for  a  male  and  female  of  this 
breed. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  of  cattle  came  originally 
from  Holland.  Here  the  people  have  kept  dairy  cows  for 
centuries.  The  country  is  very  low,  much  of  it  lying  below 
sea  level,  the  water  being  held  back  by  dykes.  There  are 
many  meadows  that  are  separated  by  canals.  On  long, 
narrow  strips  of  pasture,  with  water  on  each  side,  one  sees 
beautiful  herds  of  black  and  white  cattle,  a  most  common 
summer  sight  in  Holland.  We  do  not  know  the  origin  of 
these  cattle.  They  are  perhaps  descended  from  the  Giant 
Ox.  The  present  cattle  are  usually  black  and  white,  though 
red  and  white  rarely  occur.  Cattle  were  brought  to  America 
from  Holland  by  the  early  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  and 
vicinity.  In  1795  the  Holland  Land  Company  sent  some 
cattle  to  central  New  York.  Later  on,  Dutch  cattle  were 
taken  to  Vermont  and  other  Eastern  states.  Along  in  the 
middle  and  later  part  of  the  last  century  many  were  imported 
into  America.  This  is  our  largest  breed  of  dairy  cattle,  and 
mature  bulls  often  weigh  from  2000  to  2500  pounds,  and 
cows  from  1200  to  1500  pounds  or  more. 

The  most  striking  features  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  are 
the  large  size,  the  black-and-white  spotted  color,  and  the  big 
udders  of  many  of  the  cows.  The  heads  incline  to  be  a  trifle 
long  and  narrow,  the  horns  seem  small  for  such  a  large  breed, 
the  body  is  capacious,  the  rump  is  long  and  frequently  steep, 
and  the  thighs  are  large  and  in  many  cases  tend  to  be  some- 
what thick  and  beefy.  The  udder  is  a  notable  feature  of  the 
cows,  some  being  immense  in  size  and  capacity.  Several 
cows  have  produced  over  100  pounds  of  milk  each  in  a  day, 
and  yearly  records  up  to  even  more  than  25,000  pounds  of 
milk  are  established.  The  milk  contains  usually  a  small  per 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLfi 


64 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


cent  of  fat,  3  per  cent  being  common,  and  4  per  cent  unusual. 
The  breeders  are  now  endeavoring  to  produce  cows  that 
yield  a  milk  richer  in  fat,  and  with  considerable  success. 
On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  milk  produced,  the 
butter-fat  even  in  a  day  may  amount  to  a  very  impor- 
tant total.  The  cow  Banostine  Belle  DeKol  produced 
27,400  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  containing  1058  pounds  of 


Fig.  36.  Pietertje  Maid  Ormsby  78051,  a  Holstein-Friesian  cow  that  pro- 
duced 145%  Ibs.  butter-fat  in  30  days,  a  world's  record.  Owned  by  Jo  B.  Irwin, 
of  Minnesota.  Photograph  from  the  owner. 

butter-fat,  a  world's  record.  A  very  large  number  of  Hol- 
stein-Friesian  cattle  are  registered  in  the  Advanced  Registry 
(A.  R.  O.)  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  North 
America,  for  having  produced  at  least  a  certain  amount  of 
milk  or  butter-fat  within  a  definite  period  under  the  super- 
intendence of  a  representative  of  an  experiment  station  or 
agricultural  college.  This  breed  is  widely  distributed  in 
America,  though  it  is  best  known  in  the  more  thickly  settled 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


65 


Eastern  states  and  in  the  Middle  West  and  Northwest,  and 
is  constantly  growing  in  favor.  The  great  feeding  and  pro- 
ducing capacity  of  the  cows  and  their  quiet  disposition 
have  added  much  to  their  popularity.  The  bulls  are  like 
all  dairy  bulls,  and  tend  to  be  nervous  and  often  mean  in 
disposition.  There  are  three  recognized  types  of  this  breed, 
— (a)  the  thin-fleshed,  wedge-shaped  type;  (b)  those 
that  carry  somewhat  more  flesh;  and  (c)  those  that  are  rather 


3 


Fig.  37.     Jewel  of  Home  Farm.     A  Holstein-Friesian  bull,  famous  as  a  prize 
winner,  owned  by  W.  B.  Barney,  of  Iowa.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

broad  over  the  withers  and  thick  in  the  quarters,  and  show 
more  beefiness  than  dairy  cattle  men  usually  admire.  Many 
people  approve  the  medium  between  the  two  extremes,  if 
the  cow  is  a  satisfactory  producer  of  milk.  A  bull  of  beefy 
form,  with  a  thick  pair  of  thighs,  is  not  to  be  commended. 
Holstein-Friesian  cattle  mature  somewhat  slowly  as  com- 
pared with  the  Jersey. 

5— 


$$  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Guernsey  cattle  originated  on  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
another  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and  come  from  much  the 
same  ancestry  as  the  Jersey.  The  people  of  Guernsey 
adopted  plans  of  keeping  out  foreign  cattle  similar  to  those 
of  Jersey.  However,  the  earlier  Guernsey  cattle  show  less 
careful  breeding,  and  as  a  whole,  have  not  been  selected  and 
improved  as  much  as  those  on  Jersey.  Guernsey  is  a  tri- 
angular, hilly  island,  of  about  12,000  acres  in  area,  and 
supports  a  population  of  perhaps  40,000  people.  The  cli- 
mate is  balmy  and  healthful.  The  people  make  a  specialty 
of  flowers,  vegetables,  and  cattle.  The  island  of  Alderney  is 
officially  a  part  of  Guernsey,  and  the  cattle  on  this  island  are 
the  same  as  the  Guernseys,  being  so  considered  by  Guernsey 
and  by  American  breeders.  In  early  days,  though  not  at 
present,  all  the  cattle  from  the  Channel  Islands  in  England 
and  America  were  called  Alderneys. 

Guernsey  cattle  resemble  Jerseys,  but  are  somewhat  larger 
and  are  usually  yellowish  or  reddish  fawn  in  color.  White 
spots  are  very  common.  As  with  the  Jerseys,  a  very  light 
creamy  ring  of  hair  is  found  about  the  muzzle,  and  a  similar 
or  light  shade  of  fawn  occurs  around  the  eyes.  A  flesh- 
colored  muzzle  is  preferred  by  breeders,  a  dark  one  not 
meeting  with  approval.  Mature  bulls  weigh  about  1500 
pounds,  and  cows  1050  pounds  or  so.  Guernseys  are  usually 
of  a  quiet  disposition,  and  the  bulls  are  perhaps  less  nervous 
than  are  Jersey  males.  They  are  often  rather  plain  of  head 
and  rough  of  shoulder  and  appear  coarser  than  the  Jersey. 
They  are  noted  for  the  yellow  color  of  the  skin  and  secretions, 
the  milk  being  especially  high  in  color.  Guernsey  breeders 
rarely  color  their  butter,  depending  on  its  natural  color. 
The  cows  give  a  high-class  milk,  which  often  tests  above 
5  per  cent  fat.  Of  the  common  dairy  breeds,  this  and  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  67 

Jersey  yield  the  richest  milk,  the  advantage,  if  any,  being 
with  the  Guernsey. 

The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  the  first  breed 
association  to  establish  what  are  known  as  official  tests  for 
milk  and  butter  production,  conducted  by  disinterested 
experiment  station  or  agricultural  college  employees.  Since 
the  Club  began  this  work,  the  Guernsey  has  made  a  remark- 
able showing.  Some  of  the  largest  butter-fat  records  made 


Fig.  38.  Spottswood  Daisy  Pearl  17696,  the  champion  Guernsey 
cow,  with  record  of  957  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  one  year.  Owned  by  O.  C. 
Barber,  of  Ohio.  Photograph  from  the  owner 

by  cows  of  any  breed  have  come  from  the  Guernsey.  Dolly 
Dimple  produced  over  18,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year, 
containing  907  pounds  of  fat;  and  Spottswood  Daisy  Pearl 
finished  a  year's  record  in  January,  1912,  of  957  pounds  of 
butter-fat.  For  the  number  of  Guernseys  in  America,  an 
unusually  fine  showing  has  been  made  in  official  tests. 

Guernseys  were  first  brought  to  this  country  about  1850, 
and  were  established  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  and  New 


68 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


York.  Even  now  the  breed  is  of  somewhat  limited  distri- 
bution, being  found  largely  in  the  Eastern  states.  There  are 
many  herds  in  Wisconsin,  and  some  important  ones  are  in 
Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Ohio.  These  cattle  have  never  secured 
a  strong  foothold  in  the  South,  where  Jerseys  are  very 
common.  There  are  many  fine  Guernsey  herds  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  breed  has  made  an  excellent  record. 


Fig.  39.    Bargenoch  Bonnie  Scotland,  an  Ayrshire  bull,  owned  by  John  Sherwin, 
Cleveland,  O.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  Ayrshire  is  a  Scotch  breed  that  originated  in  the 
region  Robert  Burns  has  made  famous,  the  county  of  Ayr 
in  southwest  Scotland.  It  has  rather  a  cold,  damp  climate 
in  winter,  but  there  is  good  grazing  in  summer.  Except 
near  the  sea,  the  country  is  more  or  less  hilly.  The  Ayrshire 
is  a  dairy  breed,  and  one  of  the  youngest  of  the  prominent 
breeds,  Cattle  were  taken  to  the  Ayrshire  country  from 
various  places,  for  Shorthorns,  Highland,  Dutch,  Guernsey, 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


69 


Devon,  and  Hereford  cattle  are  said  to  have  been  owned 
by  the  farmers  of  that  region.  From  the  mingling  of  color 
of  these  breeds  we  get  the  red,  brown,  and  white  markings 
that  are  features  of  the  Ayrshire.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  there  were  cows  in  southwest  Scotland 
that  were  famous  milkers,  and  by  offering  prizes  for  compe- 
tition, the  Scotch  people 
have  still  more  encour- 
aged large  milk  produc- 
tion. The  mature  Ayr- 
shire bull  weighs  about 
1500  and  the  cows  nearly 
1100  pounds.  While  a 
true  dairy  breed,  the  Ayr- 
shire inclines  to  be  a  trifle 
fleshy,  with  more  thick- 
ness over  the  withers, 
along  the  back,  and  about 
the  thighs,  than  have  the 
Jersey  or  Guernsey.  Some 
of  the  bulls  are  quite  too 
beefy  for  the  best  dairy 
form,  and  these  cattle  fat- 
ten the  best  of  any  dairy 
breed. 

V^rv   Gtrilrir>o-    f^a-hirAc         Fig'  40'     A  fine   examPle   °f   breed   char- 
Very   SiriKing    leauireS    acter  as  seen  in  an  Ayrshire  head.     Photo- 

of  the  Ayrshire  are  the  graph  from  Mr'  c<  M  wiQslow' 
head,  with  its  rather  long,  large,  and  erect  horns,  the  red  and 
white,  or  brown  and  white  color,  with  white  most  abundant, 
the  capacious  body,  and  beautiful  udder.  No  other  breed  of 
dairy  cows  has  such  a  uniformly  well-developed  udder  as 
the  Ayrshire,  the  forepart  being  much  extended,  and  the 
rear  udder  carried  well  up  behind.  At  a  big  show  these  dairy 


70  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

cattle,  without  exception,  make  the  most  uniform  and 
attractive  exhibit  of  all  breeds.  The  milk  is  of  a  good, 
standard  quality,  testing  usually  from  3J/2  to  4  per  cent  fat. 
It  makes  excellent  cheese,  and  most  of  the  famous  cheddar 
cheese  of  Scotland  is  made  of  Ayrshire  milk. 

Ayrshires  have  not  been  extensively  tested  in  America, 
but  cows  easily  produce  6000  to  7000  pounds  of  milk  a  year. 
The  cow  Netherhall  Brownie  9th,  in  365  days  ending  in  1911, 
made  over  18,000  pounds  of  milk,  which  contained  821 
pounds  of  butter-fat.  This  is  the  best  record  for  a  cow  of  the 
breed.  Ayrshires  are  not  common  in  America,  except  in 
Canada  and  the  northeastern  United  States.  A  few  herds 
are  found  here  and  there  in  the  Western  states,  as  far  as  the 
Pacific  slope.  Cattle  of  this  breed  are  well  distributed  in 
northern  Europe,  in  South  Africa  and  Australia.  Ayrshires 
are  hardy  and  do  well  in  the  cooler  sections  of  the  world 
where  the  winters  are  long.  They  were  first  imported  into 
America  probably  in  1822,  and  have  been  brought  here  in  a 
modest  way  at  various  periods  ever  since.  They  do  not 
bring  as  high  prices,  as  a  rule,  as  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  or  Hol- 
stein-Friesians. 

Less  common  breeds  of  cattle  found  in  America  are  the 
Devon,  Red  Polled,  Brown  Swiss,  Dutch  Belted,  Kerry, 
Dexter,  and  French  Canadian.  The  following  are  some  of 
their  more  important  characteristics : 

The  Devon  is  red  in  color,  and  originated  in  Devon, 
southwest  England.  It  is  a  breed  that  is  found  to  be  either 
beefy  or  dual-purpose  in  form.  It  is  a  very  old  breed,  and 
was  brought  to  America  by  the  early  settlers  of  this  country. 
Devons  are  not  popular,  and  but  few  herds  exist.  It  has 
lost  ground  in  this  country  while  other  breeds  have  gained. 

The  Red  Polled,  as  its  name  shows,  is  red,  and  without 
horns.  The  breed  originated  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  coiin- 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


71 


ties  in  eastern  England.  Red  mulley  cattle  have  been  known 
in  America  since  the  early  settlement  of  the  country,  but  the 
first  importation  of  the  breed  recorded  was  in  1873.  These 
cattle  are  considered  good  for  both  beef  and  milk  produc- 
tion. The  cows  make  a  very  good  grade  of  milk,  but  as  a 
rule  are  not  heavy  producers,  although  some  excellent  milk 
records  have  been  made.  Red  Polled  cattle  are  most  com- 
mon in  the  Middle-western  states. 


Fig.  41.     McAlpine.  a  Brown  Swiss  cow,  first  in  class  at   Illinois  State  Fair. 
Owned  by  Mr.  E.  M.  Barton,  of  Illinois.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  originated  in  Switzerland.  In  color 
they  are  usually  a  dark  brown,  with  lighter  or  cream-colored 
hair  about  the  muzzle  and  along  the  top  of  the  back.  They 
incline  to  be  heavy  of  head  and  neck,  and  coarse-boned;  are 
likely  to  be  somewhat  fleshy,  and  often  have  rather  meaty 
thighs.  The  cows  produce  a  very  good  grade  of  milk.  While 
they  often  impress  one  as  dual-purpose  cattle,  the  association 
promoting  them  has  officially  declared  the  Brown  Swiss  to 


72  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

be  a  dairy  breed.  These  cattle  are  not  popular  in  America, 
and  but  few  herds  are  found  in  any  part  of  the  country,  these 
being  mostly  confined  to  New  York  and  the  Middle  West. 

The  Dutch  Belted  breed  of  cattle  was  developed  in  Hol- 
land. It  is  of  the  dairy  type,  and  is  noted  for  its  black  color, 
marked  off  by  a  white  stripe  or  blanket  of  varying  width 
which  extends  entirely  around  the  body  between  the  hips 
and  shoulders.  It  has  not  made  much  of  a  reputation  for 
milk  or  butter-fat  production,  and  so  far  as  public  evidence 
goes,  it  is  one  of  the  poorest  dairy  breeds.  There  are  very 
few  herds  in  America,  and  they  attract  more  attention  from 
their  peculiar  markings  than  for  actual  merit. 

The  Kerry  is  an  Irish  breed  that  has  long  been  bred  in 
Ireland.  It  is  black  in  color,  though  white  sometimes  occurs 
about  the  udder  of  the  cow.  It  is  of  small  size,  and  will 
exist  where  most  breeds  would  starve,  hence  is  the  poor  man's 
cow  of  Ireland.  It  is  strictly  a  dairy  type,  and  produces  an 
excellent  milk,  testing  about  4  per  cent  fat.  Some  of  the 
cows  give  a  large  yield  of  milk,  considering  their  size.  There 
are  but  few  Kerries  in  America.  They  are  just  beginning 
to  attract  attention  as  economical  milk  producers. 

The  Dexter  is  another  Irish  breed,  of  uncertain  ancestry 
but  closely  related  to  the  Kerry.  These  cattle  may  be  black 
or  red  in  color,  and  are  the  smallest  breed  found  in  America.  • 
Many  of  the  mature  bulls  and  cows  stand  only  36  to  40  inches 
high.  The  cows  often  produce  excellent  yields  of  milk, 
testing  above  4  per  cent  fat.  Cases  are  on  record  of  cows  of 
this  breed,  weighing  around  500  pounds,  that  have  produced 
in  a  year  over  8000  pounds  of  milk.  These  diminutive  cattle 
may  never  be  popular  for  general  dairying  in  America,  but 
they  will  grow  in  favor  for  family  use. 

The  French  Canadian  is  a  breed  that  has  had  special 
development  for  200  years  or  so  in  Quebec,  Canada.  These 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  73 

cattle  are  black  or  very  dark  fawn  in  color,  and  probably  had 
their  origin  in  France,  from  the  same  source  as  the  Channel 
Island  cattle.  This  is  one  of  the  small  breeds,  the  mature 
cow  weighing  about  700  pounds.  French  Canadian  milk 
tests  slightly  above  4  per  cent  in  fat.  Some  large  milk 
records  are  reported  from  Canada,  but  the  specimens  of  the 
breed  to  be  found  in  the  United  States  do  not  seem  to  be 
important  producers.  It  is  regarded  as  a  very  hardy  breed. 
There  are  few  herds  in  the  United  States,  these  being  located 
in  the  northeastern  portion,  though  especially  in  New  York. 

IF  YOU  WERE  ASKED  THE  QUESTION,  COULD  YOU  TELL 

1.  About  the  Wild  White  Cattle? 

2.  Who  Bates  and  Cruickshank  were,  and  what  they  did? 

3.  The  characteristics  of  Shorthorns? 

4.  When  Herefords  were  first  brought  to  America  and  by  whom? 

5.  Who  "Old  Grannie"  was? 

6.  How  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  rank  for  beef? 

7.  About  Jersey  and  the  other  Channel  Islands? 

8.  How  a  Jersey  cow  should  be  described? 

9.  Who  Jacoba  Irene  was? 

10.  How  Holsteins  rank  as  milkers? 

11.  Where  Guernsey  cattle  are  most  common  in  America? 

12.  The  characteristics  of  the  Ayrshire? 

13.  Who  keeps  pure-bred  cattle  in  your  neighborhood,  the  breeds 
owned,  and  which  is  the  most  popular? 

14.  The  name  of  any  noted  bull  or  cow  in  your  state,  and  why 
celebrated? 

15.  The  best  milk  or  butter  record  of  a  cow  in  your  township? 

16.  Whose  cows  make  the  best  showing  at  the  creamery? 

17.  What  kind  of  cattle  are  kept  at  the  county  infirmary,  or  poor 
farm? 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

The  origin  of  the  domestic  sheep  is  generally  believed  to 
be  from  several  kinds  of  wild  sheep  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  One  of  these  is  found  in  the  hilly  or  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Asia,  and  is  known  as  the  Argali.  It  is  much 
larger  than  our  domestic  sheep,  has  big  horns,  and  a  coat  of 
black  or  dark-red  hair,  below  which  is  a  covering  of  white 
wool.  Another  form,  called  the  Musmon,  is  found  in  the 
more  mountainous  parts  of  Greece  and  adjacent  sections  of 
Europe.  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  are  another  sort  living 
on  the  higher  mountains  of  North  America.  Wild  sheep 
have  always  been  found  in  the  elevated  parts  of  Africa  and 
eastern  Asia.  All  of  these  sheep  have  certain  features  in 
common. 

Just  how  long  the  sheep  have  been  subject  to  the  control 
of  man  we  do  not  know.  Neither  have  we  any  information 
as  to  the  wild  family  from  which  the  domestic  form  has  come. 
Scientific  men  have  had  different  views  on  this  subject. 
Bones  of  sheep  have  been  found  among  the  remains  of  the 
lake  dwellers  of  Switzerland,  a  people  who  lived  before  the 
dawn  of  history.  The  very  earliest  writings,  including  the 
Bible,  show  man  to  have  had  large  flocks  of  domestic  sheep, 
and  to  have  valued  highly  both  wool  and  meat. 

Three  distinct  classes  or  groups  of  sheep  may  be  made, 
depending  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  fleece.  These 
are  fine  or  short,  medium,  and  long  or  coarse  wools.  These 
classes  are  somewhat  due  to  the  sorting  over  of  the  fleeces 
by  the  wool  merchant,  who  finds  that  each  class  serves  a 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  75 

special  purpose  in  his  business.  Another  grouping  is  also 
sometimes  made,  consisting  of  the  fine-wool,  or  Merino 
class,  and  the  mutton  breeds.  However,  this  last  arrange- 
ment is  more  commonly  referred  to  by  shepherds  than  by 
wool  dealers.  There  are  many  different  breeds  of  sheep, 
some  of  which  are  but  little  known  in  America,  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  only  ones  of  importance  in  this  country. 

The  Merino  is  a  very  old  breed  that  had  its  important 
early  development  in  Spain.  Here  for  centuries  the  Monks 
and  wealthy  people  owned  large  flocks  that  were  noted  for 
their  very  fine  wool.  As  long  ago  as  the  first  century,  the 
sheep  of  Spain  were  famous,  and  700  years  ago  the  manu- 
facture of  wool  into  beautiful  cloth  was  a  great  industry 
in  that  country.  When  the  people  of  the  other  European 
countries  learned  of  the  fine  wool  that  was  produced  there, 
they  sent  to  Spain  and  obtained  some  of  the  Spanish  sheep. 
Specially  selected  flocks  were  taken  to  Germany  and  France 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  first  Merinos  were  brought  to  the  United  States 
in  1793.  Three  head  were  smuggled  out  of  Spain  by  William 
Foster  of  Boston.  He  gave  them  to  a  friend,  who  killed  them 
for  meat,  not  knowing  how  valuable  they  were,  until 
he  later  paid  $1000  for  a  ram  of  the  same  breed.  Seth 
Adams  of  Massachusetts,  later  of  Ohio,  imported  a  pair 
in  1801,  and  in  1802  Colonel  Humphreys  of  Connecticut 
brought  to  America  nearly  100  head.  These  Humphrey 
sheep  proved  very  valuable,  and  from  them  some  of  the  best 
flocks  in  America  started.  Much  interest  followed  these  two 
importations.  Soon  other  people  began  to  import  Merinos 
into  the  United  States,  and  very  high  prices  were  paid  for 
them.  During  18  months  ending  in  1811,  nearly  20,000 
of  these  sheep  were  brought  to  this  country.  The  people 
became  almost  crazy  over  Merinos,  and  paid  very  high 


7tf  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

prices,  some  selling  for  as  high  as  $1500  each.  As  our 
country  developed,  the  Merino  became  widely  distributed 
and  but  few  of  any  other  kind  were  kept  for  many  years. 
During  this  time  our  people  cared  but  little  for  mutton,  but 
high  prices  were  paid  for  wool,  for  which  the  Merino  was 
especially  valued.  These  sheep  grew  greatly  in  popularity 
in  all  wool-producing  countries,  so  that  even  today  there  are 
more  sheep  of  this  breed  than  any  other,  for  immense  flocks 


Jtf'ig.  42.     A  Merino  ram  owned  by  S.  M.  Cleaver,  of  Ohio, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


are  found  in  Australia,  South  America,  and  over  much  of 
the  United  States.  However,  the  production  of  wool  is 
growing  less  profitable,  so  that  shepherds  are  gradually 
changing  to  the  mutton  breeds,  or  are  giving  up  their 
flocks  altogether. 

A  number  of  different  Merino  families  have  been  devel- 
oped in  America.  They  all  had  their  origin  in  the  sheep  of 
Spanish  breeding,  but  in  the  hands  of  certain  men  each 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  77 

gradually  developed  special  features.  In  this  way  families 
of  Merinos  were  established.  For  a  great  many  years  all 
sheep  that  had  heavy  folds  over  the  body  were  known  as 
Spanish  Merinos.  Later  the  people  came  to  refer  to  sheep 
of  this  class  that  had  been  produced  in  America,  as  American 
Merinos.  In  time,  a  larger  sheep,  with  few  folds  or  none, 
developed,  that  produced  a  longer  and  somewhat  coarser 
grade  of  wool  especially  suited  for  certain  cloth  manufacture. 
These  became  known  as  Delaine  Merinos.  These  sheep  also 
produced  a  good  grade  of  mutton.  Among  the  Delaines  are 
some  family  branches  of  interest,  though  not  widely  bred,  as 
for  example,  the  Dickinson  and  the  Blacktop.  Most  of 
the  Delaine  improvement  of  importance  took  place  in  western 
Pennsylvania  and  in  Ohio. 

Some  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  Merino  may 
be  considered  here.  These  sheep  produce  the  finest  wool 
known.  It  is  so  fine  that  over  1000  fibers  may  be  laid  side 
by  side  within  an  inch  space.  The  fleece  covers  the  entire 
body,  often  coming  down  over  the  face  to  the  nostrils,  and 
covering  the  legs  even  to  the  toes.  If  the  sheep  has  folds 
or  wrinkles  over  the  body,  we  expect  to  get  the  finest  and 
shortest  wool.  The  less  folds  over  the  body,  as  a  rule,  the 
larger  the  sheep  and  the  longer  and  coarser  the  fleece.  Aver- 
age Merino  wool  is  about  2J/£  inches  long. 

On  the  outside  of  the  fleece  we  usually  find  more  or  less 
grease  or  oil,  or  yolk,  as  it  is  called,  mixed  with  dirt,  most  of 
which  easily  washes  out,  even  in  cold  water.  The  cloth 
manufacturer  removes  this  by  scouring.  Some  fleeces  in 
this  operation  lose  75  per  cent  of  their  weight.  Wool 
buyers  do  not  like  a  very  heavy  amount  of  oil,  on  account 
of  this  shrinkage  when  the  wool  is  scoured.  A  common 
weight  for  a  fleece  is  eight  or  ten  pounds,  but  some  have 
weighed  over  40  pounds  when  taken  from  the  sheep.  Rams 


78  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

weigh  at  maturity  130  pounds  or  more,  and  the  ewes  around 
100  pounds.  Those  with  folds  weigh  the  least,  while  the 
smooth-bodied  ones  are  larger.  Merino  sheep  are  very  hardy 
and  thrive  on  ordinary  pasture.  They  run  together  in  flocks 
much  better  than  any  other  breed,  and  so  are  easily  managed 
by  shepherds  and  dogs  when  on  great  ranges  or  pastures. 
Large  numbers  of  sheep  that  have  Merino  blood  in  them 
come  into  the  markets,  but  really  are  of  mutton  parentage. 
They  make  excellent  mutton,  and  are  liked  by  butchers 
because  they  are  neither  too  large  nor  too  fat.  More  pure- 
bred flocks  are  found  today  in  Ohio  than  in  any  other  state, 
although  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan  have 
flocks  also.  West  of  the  Mississippi  there  are  large  numbers 
of  these  sheep  on  the  range. 

The  Rambouillet  sheep  is  a  breed  of  Merinos  that  has 
been  especially  developed  by  the  French  Government.  In 
1786  King  Louis  XVI  of  France  sent  a  man  to  Spain  to  bring 
back  a  selection  of  Merinos.  These  were  brought  to  one 
of  the  royal  farms  about  40  miles  west  of  Paris,  at  a  town 
named  Rambouillet.  Here  on  this  estate  the  government 
has  bred  the  descendants  of  these  sheep  for  125  years.  They 
were  introduced  into  America  in  1840,  and  for  many  years 
were  known  as  French  Merinos.  About  1890  the  name 
Rambouillet  came  into  use,  and  now  the  term  French  Merino 
is  rarely  used.  These  sheep  have  all  the  common  features 
of  the  smooth-bodied  Merino.  However,  it  is  the  very 
largest  family  of  this  breed,  and  has  been  at  times  called 
the  "Elephant  Merino."  The  ram  weighs  about  185 
pounds  at  maturity,  though  some  have  weighed  250  pounds, 
and  the  ewes  weigh  around  150  pounds.  This  family  is 
known  as  a  mutton  Merino,  and  a  mutton  form  is  an  impor- 
tant feature.  Thus  one  may  expect  a  broad  back  and  a 
thick  leg  of  mutton  in  a  good  specimen  of  the  Rambouillet. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  79 

One  or  two  folds  or  more  are  not  considered  objectionable 
when  found  about  the  neck  and  breast,  but  the  body  should 
be  smooth.  The  fleece  of  12  months'  growth  should  be 
about  three  inches  long,  and  compact  over  the  body,  with 
but  little  oil  or  dirt  on  the  outside.  Well-bred  Rambouillet 
flocks  shear  about  10  or  12  pounds  of  wool  per  head.  These 
sheep  have  grown  in  popularity  in  recent  years,  for  they 
mature  early,  are  hardy,  and  seem  well  suited  to  most  parts 
of  the  United  States  where  sheep  husbandry  thrives.  On 
the  Western  range,  and  on  the  Pacific  slope  are  found  some 
of  the  very  best  and  largest  flocks  in  America.  Many  choice 
flocks  are  also  owned  in 
Ohio.  Rambouillet  sheep 
have  been  bred  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  north- 
ern Germany,  and  very 
large  numbers  are  now 
found  in  the  Argentine,  in 
South  America. 

The  Southdown  is  one 
of  the  oldest    breeds    of 

,  T ,  i  Fig.  43.     A  Rambouillet  ram  lamb,  bred 

Sheep.       ItS     native     nome     by     Illinois     University.     Photograph    from 
ji        o       ii    i  i  MI       Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey. 

is  on  the  Southdown  hills 

in  Sussex  county  in  southeast  England.  These  hills  are  of 
white  chalk,  and  are  covered  with  soil  on  which  grass  and 
the  small  grains  do  very  well.  About  1775  a  man  named 
John  Ellman,  who  lived  in  Sussex,  began  to  improve  the 
native  sheep  and  kept  at  this  work  for  over  50  years. 
Through  his  efforts  the  Southdown  developed  into  the 
best  mutton  sheep  known,  having  splendid  vigor,  fatten- 
ing easily,  maturing  rapidly,  and  producing  a  carcass 
with  but  little  waste  at  slaughter.  While  the  fleece  was 
not  heavy,  its  quality  was  fine.  Following  Mr.  Ellman 


80  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

came  Jonas  Webb,  who  lived  north  of  London,  at  Babra- 
ham,  near  the  city  of  Cambridge.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  greatest  English  breeders.  His  Southdowns  had  more 
size  and  were  a  still  better  mutton  sheep  than  were 
Ellman's.  As  a  mutton  sheep,  the  Southdown  has  occupied 
a  most  important  place  for  a  century  or  more,  being  still 
considered  the  model  sheep  for  that  purpose.  It  has  been 
used  to  help  improve  more  breeds  than  has  any  other. 
Southdowns  were  first  imported  into  America  about  1800, 
and  since  then  many  others  have  been  brought  here. 

The  Southdown  has  been  noted  for  its  short,  neat  head, 
which  is  more  or  less  covered  with  wool  down  over  the  red- 
dish-brown face.  It  has  a  short,  thick  neck,  broad  chest, 
wide  back,  thick  meaty  leg  of  mutton,  and  short  red-brown 
legs.  No  other  breed  matures  earlier,  and  it  is  not  lacking 
in  hardiness.  Southdowns  are  well  suited  to  grazing  on  the 
better  class  of  pastures,  but  are  not  so  good  for  the  range  and 
poor  pastures  as  are  some  others.  The  flesh  is  very  fine  of 
grain  and  is  not  inclined  to  be  overfat.  Butchers  especially 
admire  this  sheep  because  it  kills  out  so  well,  with  small 
amount  of  loss.  The  Southdown,  or  sheep  with  more  or 
less  of  Southdown  blood,  have  won  more  prizes  in  fat-stock 
shows  where  the  carcasses  were  considered,  than  has  any 
other  breed.  At  our  great  International  Live  Stock  Ex- 
position, the  Southdown  has  usually  won  the  grand-cham- 
pionship on  the  dressed  carcass  exhibit.  Mature  rams  weigh 
about  175  pounds,  and  the  ewes  135  pounds.  These  sheep  have 
been  criticised  as  being  too  small  for  the  American  farmer. 
The  average  fleece  is  short  and  light  of  weight,  though  of  fine 
quality,  and  this  has  also  made  the  breed  generally  unpopu- 
lar in  America,  although  it  is  looked  upon  with  more  favor 
in  the  Southern  states.  In  spite  of  these  criticisms,  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


81 


82  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

breed  commands  universal  respect,   and   flocks  of  South- 
downs  are  found  all  over  the  civilized  world. 

The  Shropshire  sheep  originated  from  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent types  native  in  and  about  the  county  of  that  name  in 
western  England.  This  is  a  rather  hilly  region,  with  many 
fine  pastures,  and  is  well  suited  to  these  animals.  A  num- 
ber of  different  men  were  interested  in  the  improvement  of 


Fig.  45.     A  group  of  Shropshire  sheep  on  farm  of  H.  M.  Brown,  of  Ohio. 
Photograph  from  W.  E.  Duckwall. 

the  Shropshire,  prominent  among  whom  were  Messrs.  Meire 
and  Adney.  Some  of  the  early  sheep  were  very  coarse  and 
had  horns,  and  Mr.  Meire  worked  to  improve  the  quality, 
to  get  rid  of  the  horns,  and  to  develop  a  better  mutton  sheep. 
In  this  he  succeeded.  Shropshires  became  somewhat 
prominent  in  England  about  1853,  when  they  were  first 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show.  About 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  83 

1880  much  attention  was  given  the  breed,  and  large  exhibi- 
tions were  made  at  English  shows.  These  sheep  were  first 
imported  into  America  in  1860,  by  Samuel  Sutton,  of  Mary- 
land. Twenty  years  later  they  were  imported  in  larger 
numbers,  and  since  then  thousands  have  been  brought  to 
the  United  States,  where  this  is  the  most  popular  of  all  the 
mutton  breeds.  In  size  the  Shropshire  is  medium,  the 
mature  rams  weighing  about  225  pounds  and  the  ewes  about 
160  pounds.  The  head  often  has  a  covering  of  wool,  or 
"cap,"  down  to  the  nose,  which  is  covered  with  dark  brown 
or  nearly  black  hair.  The  back  is  broad,  the  leg  of  mutton 
very  good,  and  the  body  is  usually  deep,  showing  good  feed- 
ing capacity.  The  legs  are  dark  brown  in  color  like  the  face, 
and  are  covered  with  wool  to  the  knees  in  front  and  to  the 
ankles  behind.  The  quality  of  mutton  is  most  excellent,  being 
second  to  the  Southdown  only.  The  fleece  is  usually  about 
3J/2  inches  long,  and  is  of  very  good  quality.  A  twelve 
months'  growth  from  fair  specimens  of  the  breed  weighs  about 
9  or  10  pounds.  The  combination  of  good  size  of  body  and 
weight  of  fleece  has  done  much  to  make  this  breed  popular 
with  American  farmers,  as  a  great  general-purpose  sheep. 
Besides  this,  Shropshires  are  the  most  prolific  breed  we  have, 
many  ewes  having  twin  lambs.  Flocks  are  very  common 
all  over  the  so-called  corn  belt  of  the  United  States,  espe- 
cially east  of  the  Mississippi  and  in  Canada.  The  American 
Shropshire  Sheep  Association  is  the  largest  organization  of 
its  kind  in  the  world,  and  has  done  much  to  promote  the 
breed. 

The  Oxford  Down  sheep  comes  from  the  county  of  Oxford, 
in  south-central  England.  It  is  a  beautiful  rolling  country, 
with  good  pastures,  and  where  wheat  and  small  grains  thrive. 
This  is  one  of  our  youngest  breeds  of  sheep,  and  comes  from 
a  combination  of  Cotswold  and  Hampshire  blood.  About 


84 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


1833  a  man  named  Druce  began  to  breed  these  sheep,  and 
finally  produced  one  of  the  largest  English  mutton  breeds. 
For  a  long  time  the  wool,  though  abundant,  was  rather 
inferior,  but  the  size  and  the  mutton  quality  <~»£  the  sheep 
made  it  popular.  A  few  of  these  sheep  were  brought  to 
Delaware  in  1846,  and  since  then  the  breed  has  been  much 
improved  and  has  been  gaining  in  popularity  in  America. 
As  already  stated,  it  is  a  large  breed,  the  rams  at  maturity 


Fig.  46.  A  group  of  Oxford  Down  sheep  on  the  farm  of  Geprge  Adams, 
England.  Notice  the  style  of  hurdles  used  for  temporary  fencing.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

often  weighing  275  pounds  or  more,  and  the  ewes  about  200 
pounds.  The  color  of  the  hair  on  the  face,  ears,  and  legs  is 
a  very  dark  brown,  quite  like  the  Shropshire.  Oxfords  are 
not  so  heavily  wooled  over  the  head,  and  often  the  face  is 
rather  free  of  wool,  and  the  ears  indine  to  be  rather  smooth 
and  large.  Typical  specimens  have  quite  wide  backs,  fairly 
good  legs  of  mutton,  and  deep  bodies.  During  recent 
years  the  breed  has  been  much  improved,  the  flesh  growing 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


85 


finer  in  quality,  and  the  fat  being  laid  on  more  smoothly. 
The  fleece,  which  frequently  weighs  12  pounds,  is  longer, 
more  open,  and  coarser,  than  that  of  the  Shropshire.  This  is 
a  breed  that  has  made  a  favorable  impression  on  farmers  in 
the  states  of  the  Middle  West,  where  fairly  early  maturity, 
size,  and  heavy  fleece  are  wanted.  The  ewes  are  quite 
prolific,  and  though  not  equalling  the  Shropshires,  make  a 
very  good  showing.  The  Oxford  may  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  promising  breeds  for  future  development. 
Recently  flocks  have  been  extensively  distributed  to  many 
sheep-growing  countries.  There  are  more  of  these  sheep 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  Wisconsin  than  else- 
where in  America. 

The  Hampshire  Down 
sheep,  like  the  Southdown 
and  Oxford  Down  breeds, 
originated  in  southern 
England  and  under  much 
the  same  conditions  of  cli- 
mate and  soil.  Their 

ancestors      Were      Of      tWO  Fig.  47.     A     Hampshire     ram,     grand- 

.    ,         .  .        „  champion  at  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition, 

kinds,  One  With  White  faces    1904.     Photograph    from    Chilmark    Farms, 

and  horns,  and  the  other 

with  dark  faces  and  horns.  Southdown  blood  was  mingled 
with  these  two,  from  which  came  the  more  improved 
Hampshire,  without  horns  and  with  an  almost  black 
face,  ears,  and  legs.  A  man  named  Humphrey  was 
the  most  important  early  improver  of  these  sheep,  and  later, 
James  Rawlence  did  much  for  them.  The  Hampshire  is  one 
of  the  largest  breeds,  mature  rams  often  weighing  250  pounds, 
and  ewes  nearly  200  pounds.  The  head  is  one  of  the  strik- 
ing features  of  the  breed.  The  nostrils,  lips,  and  face  are 


86  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

quite  black;  the  nose  is  very  strong,  or  Roman  in  character; 
and  the  ears  are  dark,  very  large,  and  incline  forward  in  a 
heavy  style.  Wool  rarely  extends  much  beyond  the  fore- 
head. The  body  is  large,  and  the  form  is  of  the  usual  mut- 
ton type.  Hampshire  sheep  often  seem  somewhat  coarse  of 
bone  and  large  of  limb.  The  fleece  is  about  4  inches  long, 
inclines  to  be  coarse  and  open,  and  usually  does  not  shear 
much  above  7  pounds  with  12  months'  growth.  Hampshires 
have  long  been  popular  for  early  or  spring  lambs,  which  are 
considered  of  excellent  quality.  The  breed  is  undoubtedly 
growing  in  favor,  and  during  the  past  few  years  large  importa- 
tions have  been  brought  to  the  United  States.  In  the  more 
fertile  sections  where  feed  is  abundant,  the  Hampshire 
makes  an  excellent  showing,  as  it  does  in  its  native  home  in 
England.  The  breed  is  widely  distributed  in  North  and 
South  America,  in  Europe  and  Australia.  In  the  United 
States,  the  important  flocks  are  kept  mostly  in  the  Northern 
states  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Dorset  Horn  sheep  receives  its  name  from  the 
•county  of  Dorset,  in  southern  England,  where  it  has  long 
been  bred.  It  is  an  improved  form  of  two  native,  horned, 
white-faced  breeds  found  in  Dorset  and  Somerset  counties. 
The  modern  Dorset  Horn  belongs  to  the  middle-wool  class, 
and  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  rams  weighing  about  225 
pounds  and  ewes  165.  Both  sexes  have  horns,  those  of  the 
ram  at  maturity  being  large  and  having  spiral  turns,  while 
those  of  the  ewes  are  small,  and  bend  in  a  simple  curve 
around  toward  the  face.  The  head,  ears,  and  legs  have  a 
covering  of  white  hair,  and  the  nostrils  are  of  flesh  color. 
The  neck  is  often  short,  the  back  wide,  and  the  body  of  large 
capacity,  with  a  fair  leg  of  mutton.  Dorsets  are  popular 
as  lambs,  and  for  mutton,  although  the  quality  of  the  mutter 
is  not  of  the  best.  The  lambs  feed  well  and  lay  on  flesh 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


87 


rapidly.  As  wool  producers,  this  is  a  breed  that  should  do 
better.  The  fleece  tends  to  be  short  and  the  weight  light, 
ranging  around  6  pounds  for  average  animals.  These  sheep 
were  first  brought  to  America  in  1885,  and  while  there  are 


Fig.  48.  A  pen  of  Horned  Dorset  ewes,  champions  at  the  show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England.  Photograph  from  the  National  Stockman 
and  Farmer. 

numerous  flocks  in  the  Eastern  states,  the  breed  can  hardly 
be  called  popular  as  yet. 

The  Cheviot  sheep  comes  from  the  Cheviot  Hills  in  the 
border  country  between  England  and  Scotland.  Here  the 
land  rises  into  high  grass-topped  mountains  nearly  4000 


88  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

feet  above  the  sea.  Grass  is  the  universal  crop,  and  here 
this  breed  of  sheep  has  been  raised  for  long  beyond  a  cen- 
tury, and  gradually  improved  during  the  passing  years. 
Today  the  Cheviot  is  a  medium-wool,  fair-sized  sheep,  the 
rams  weighing  around  200  pounds  at  maturity,  and  the 
ewes  150  pounds.  This  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  breeds. 
The  head  is  entirely  free  of  wool,  and  the  face  and  ears  are 
covered  with  white  hair,  with  black  specks  occasionally 


Fig.  49.     Cheviot   rams   on   pasture   in   Scotland.     Owned   by   John   Elliott. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

occurring.  The  nostrils  are  black,  the  nose  tends  to  be  a  bit 
Roman,  the  eye  is  large  and  prominent,  and  the  erect  ear 
is  usually  pricked  up  as  though  listening.  The  Cheviot 
inclines  to  be  somewhat  narrow  of  back,  with  a  moderate 
depth  of  body  and  fair  leg  of  mutton,  though  in  recent  years 
it  has  been  much  improved.  The  fleece  covers  the  body  to 
the  back  of  the  ears  and  down  to  the  knees  and  hocks,  the 
rest  of  the  leg  being  covered  with  white  hair.  The  fleece 
tends  to  be  somewhat  open  and  is  usually  about  3J/£  inches 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  89 

long  and  a  year's  growth  weighs  6  or  7  pounds.  The  fiber 
inclines  to  be  coarser  than  that  of  the  Shropshire,  American 
breeders  using  the  latter  for  a  standard. 

Cheviots  are  very  hardy,  and  in  their  native  home  on  the 
mountains  rely  altogether  on  grass  the  entire  year.  They 
are  active  and  independent,  and  do  not  flock  as  do  other 
breeds.  For  this  reason  the  breed  has  never  been  suited  to 
the  range  country.  The  quality  of  Cheviot  mutton  is  very 
superior,  having  very  fine  grain,  and  lacking  surplus  fat. 
In  mutton  carcass  contests  in  the  English  and  Scotch  shows, 
the  Cheviot  has  always  held  a  high  place.  It  is  not  widely 
distributed  outside  of  its  native  home,  though  found  in  the 
United  States  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  in  other 
states  of  the  Middle  West. 

The  Suffolk  sheep  comes  from  the  county  after  which  it 
is  named,  in  southeastern  England.  It  belongs  to  the 
medium-wool  class,  and  is  chiefly  a  mutton  breed.  The  head, 
ears,  and  legs  of  the  Suffolk  are  distinctly  black  in  color. 
This  gives  a  group  of  these  sheep  a  very  striking  appearance. 
Mature  rams  weigh  about  250  pounds  and  the  ewes  175 
pounds.  The  fleece  is  not  heavy.  Suffolks  are  not  exten- 
sively bred  in  England,  and  but  few  of  them  are  to  be  found 
in  America.  In  fact,  they  are  very  rare  here,  and  are  not 
often  seen  at  our  sheep  shows,  neither  have  they  been  much 
advertised  in  America. 

The  Tunis  sheep  takes  its  name  from  Tunis,  in  northern 
Africa,  where  it  is  supposed  to  have  originated.  In  1799, 
General  Eaton,  United  States  Consul  at  Tunis,  received  a 
gift  of  a  number  of  these  sheep,  two  of  which  survived  a 
voyage  to  America.  Other  importations  followed  this  one 
of  General  Eaton.  These  early  importations  were  kept  in 
the  Eastern  and  Southern  states,  and  little  was  done  to 
improve  them.  They  are  peculiar  in  having  a  large,  fat 


90 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


tail,  and  have  often  been  called  "Fat  Tailed  Sheep. "  In 
recent  years,  especially  since  about  1893,  they  have  been 
bred  in  small  flocks,  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but 
especially  in  Indiana.  They  are  of  medium  size,  with 
brown,  or  mottled  brown  and  white  faces,  and  brown  legs. 
The  tail  is  cut  off  soon  after  birth,  as  with  other  lambs,  but 
the  hind  parts  of  the  Tunis  are  somewhat  heavier  than 
corresponding  parts  of  other  breeds.  The  Tunis  makes  an 
excellent  feeder,  and  lambs  of  this  breed  have  sold  for  high 
prices  on  the  market,  and  have  met  with  much  favor  from 
stock  buyers.  The  fleece  is  of  good  quality,  averaging  about 

3  inches  long,  and  frequently 
containing  red  or  brown  fibers. 
But  few  of  these  sheep  are  to 
be  seen,  and  fairs  generally 
make  no  arrangement  for  them 
in  the  premium  lists. 

The  Leicester  sheep  (pro- 
nounced Lester)  originated  in 
central  England  in  the  county 
of  that  name.  Here  Robert 
Bakewell,  one  of  the  most 
famous  live-stock  breeders  in 
English  history,  developed  and  improved  the  native  stock 
into  the  New  Leicester.  This  was  really  the  first  improved 
breed  of  sheep  known  in  England,  and  for  a  great  many 
years  it  was  extremely  popular.  Some  of  these  sheep  were 
brought  to  America,  it  is  said,  before  the  War  of  the  Revo- 
lution. In  1800,  New  Leicester  sheep  were  known  about 
Philadelphia.  In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
many  were  imported  and  sold  for  high  prices.  This  is  a 
large  breed,  and  belongs  to  the  long,  or  coarse-wool  class. 
The  entire  head  and  ears  are  covered  with  white  hair,  the 


Fig.  50.     A    Border    Leicester    ram. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  91 

wool  not  growing  beyond  the  back  of  the  head.  The  ears 
are  large  but  thin,  and  are  usually  carried  in  an  erect  posi- 
tion. The  nostrils  are  black,  the  nose  is  somewhat  promi- 
nent, and  the  eye  bold  and  attractive.  The  Leicester  has  a 
full,  wide  breast;  broad,  flat  back;  wide  rump;  and  fair  leg 
of  mutton.  The  body  form  is  broad  rather  than  deep,  and 
sometimes  these  sheep  appear  long  of  leg.  They  fatten 
rapidly,  and  the  rams  at  maturity  weigh  around  250  pounds, 
and  the  ewes  175  pounds  or  more.  As  mutton  producers, 
they  are  not  popular  because  they  lay  on  too  much  fat. 
They  require  good  pastures,  and  are  not  the  hardiest  sheep  in 
the  world.  This,  with  their  size,  accounts  for  there  being  so 
few  of  them  today  either  in  America  or  elsewhere.  The 
Leicester  is  the  smallest  of  the  long-wool  breeds,  and  has 
a  curly  fleece  that  does  not  shear  very  heavily,  7  to  9  pounds 
being  about  a  year's  growth.  Once  a  popular  breed,  this  is 
now  the  least  known  in  America  of  all  the  so-called  common 
breeds  of  sheep.  In  northern  England,  in  the  border  coun- 
try, is  an  improved  form  or  family  known  as  the  Border 
Leicester,  which  is  the  more  common  type  today.  This 
family  has  a  more  vigorous  constitution  and  has  a  clear  white 
face,  while  the  old  breed  has  a  bluish  tint  to  the  skin. 

The  Cotswold  sheep  gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in 
early  times  in  England  these  sheep  were  sheltered  in  what 
were  called  "Cots,"  and  were  pastured  on  the  treeless  hills 
known  as  "Wolds."  That  was  in  southwest  England, 
where  this  breed  has  been  kept  for  centuries.  It  is  written 
that  in  1464  King  Edward  IV  gave  permission  to  transport 
some  Cotswold  sheep  to  Spain.  About  100  years  or  more 
ago,  Cotswold  and  Leicester  flocks  were  mixed  a  great  deal 
in  blood,  by  which  it  is  said  the  former  was  improved.  These 
sheep  were  brought  to  America  as  early  as  1832,  and  at  one 
time  were  very  popular,  especially  in  the  states  east  of 


92 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Illinois  and  north  of  Tennessee.  This  is  a  large,  long-wooled 
breed,  larger  than  the  Leicester,  mature  rams  weighing  from 
250  to  275  pounds,  and  ewes  200  to  225  pounds.  The  head 
is  somewhat  large,  and  is  usually  white,  though  it  may  be 
gray  or  brown  in  tint.  The  nose  is  rather  prominent,  and 
the  ears  incline  to  be  large  and  are  carried  somewhat  heavily. 
If  the  forehead  of  the  Cotswold  is  protected,  long  curly  locks 
of  wool  hang  down  in  front,  often  hiding  the  eyes.  This 
breed  has  a  broad  breast,  wide,  flat  back  and  broad  rump, 

and  shows  a  greater 
width  than  depth  of 
body  in  the  best  speci- 
mens. While  the  Cots- 
wold  feeds  very  well,  if 
on  good  pasture  and 
under  favorable  condi- 
tions, it  is  not  a  breed 
suited  to  scant  pastures. 
The  well-fattened  carcass 
is  too  large,  coarse,  and 
fat  for  the  present  de- 
mand. The  fleece  is 
coarser  and  the  curly 
locks  larger  than  with 

the  Leicester.  Good  Cotswold  wool  is  noted  for  its  lustre, 
having  a  shiny,  glistening  quality,  rather  peculiar  to  this 
and  the  Lincoln  breed,  and  is  much  valued  by  the  English 
breeders.  A  twelve  months'  fleece  is  usually  from  8  to  10 
inches  long,  and  weighs  about-  10  pounds.  There  are  not 
many  Cotswold  flocks  in  the  United  States,  and  the  breed 
is  more  popular  in  Canada  than  here.  The  demands  for  a 
smaller  sheep  and  a  different  grade  of  wool  make  it  difficult 
for  this  breed  to  become  popular  in  America. 


Fig.  51.     A  Cotswold  ram.     Photograpl 
the  author. 


by 


TFE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


93 


The  Lincoln  sheep  comes  from  the  county  of  that  name 
on  the  east  coast  of  England.  This  is  a  very  old  breed,  and 
its  improvement  began  while  Bakewell  was  improving  the 
Leicester.  Some  Lincoln  sheep  were  brought  to  America 
before  1800,  and  they  have  been  imported  in  a  small  way 
ever  since.  This  is  a  large  breed,  being  somewhat  larger 
than  the  Cotswold,  and  having  much  in  common  with  the 
latter.  The  head  is  large,  and  is  gray  or  white  in  color,  or 
gray  mixed  with  white.  The  wool  does  not  cover  the  entire 


Fig.  52.     A  group  of  Lincoln  ewes  owned  by  William  Shier,  of  Michigan.    Photo- 
graph from  the  American  Sheep  Breeder. 

head,  but  frequently  a  small  tuft  of  short  locks  extends  over 
the  forehead.  The  ears  are  large  and  usually  have  no  wool 
on  them.  The  body  form  is  much  like  that  of  the  Cotswold, 
though  perhaps  deeper  of  rib.  These  sheep  fatten  easily; 
but  the  carcasses  get  too  heavy  and  have  too  much  external 
fat  for  the  present-day  trade,  and  so  the  mutton  is  not  popular. 
The  Lincoln  requires  good  grazing  to  do  its  best,  as  it  is  too 
heavy  for  the  hill  country.  The  Lincoln  produces  a  fleece 


94  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

in  long,  wavy  locks,  not  so  curly  but  with  the  same  lustre 
as  the  Cotswold.  A  year-old  fleece  is  usually  8  inches  long, 
and  may  weigh  10  pounds.  Lincoln  sheep  have  grown  in 
popularity  in  their  native  home  on  account  of  the  demand  for 
them  in  the  Argentine,  where  large  numbers  are  kept.  Very 
high  prices  have  been  paid  for  them  in  England,  and  in  1906 
a  ram  sold  for  $7600,  the  highest  sum  on  record  for  the  breed. 
In  the  United  States,  Lincolns  have  gained  in  favor  some- 
what, although  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  popular. 

The  Romney  Marsh  or  Kent  sheep  originated  in  south- 
east England,  in  the  county  of  Kent,  on  the  marshes  after 
which  the  breed  is  named.  The  soil  here  is  low,  rich,  and 
marshy.  These  sheep  seem  especially  suited  to  the  local 
conditions,  not  suffering  from  foot  rot  as  do  other  breeds. 
The  head  and  legs  are  white,  the  back  is  broad,  and  the  body 
is  of  compact  form.  These  sheep  fatten  very  well  on  rather 
limited  areas,  and  make  a  fair  grade  of  mutton.  The  fleece 
weighs  about  8  pounds,  after  a  year's  growth,  and  is  in  good 
demand.  Large  numbers  of  Romney  Marsh  sheep  are  now 
found  in  the  Argentine,  and  importations  to  America  on  a 
small  scale  have  just  begun,  an  association  for  promoting 
them  having  been  organized  at  Chicago  in  December,  1911. 
Since  it  is  almost  an  unknown,  untried  breed  in  America, 
its  merits  for  our  conditions  remain  to  be  shown.  This 
breed  belongs  to  the  middle-wool  class. 

The  Black  Faced  Highland  sheep  has  long  been  known 
in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  where  it  grazes  on  the  grass 
and  heather  on  the  highest  mountains.  In  this  breed,  as  in 
the  Dorset,  both  sexes  have  horns,  those  of  the  ram  being 
spiral  and  very  large  and  showy  at  maturity.  Highland 
sheep  have  black  or  mottled  black  and  white  faces,  with  no 
wool  beyond  the  forehead.  While  these  sheep,  which  are 
from  small  to  medium  size,  produce  a  very  fine  grade  of 


THE  BREEDS  OF  GOATS  95 

mutton  on  their  native  pastures,  they  are  slow  growers,  and 
cannot  be  ranked  as  feeders,  as  we  view  sheep  in  America. 
Their  chief  value  lies  in  their  adaptability  to  rough,  hardy 
conditions,  enabling  them  to  live  through  winters  when  most 
other  breeds  would  perish.  The  fleece  is  very  coarse,  long, 
and  open,  falling  from  the  body  in  wavy  locks.  Some 
Black  Faced  Highlanders  have  extremely  coarse  wool,  with 
more  or  less  hair  about  the  lower  thighs.  In  disposition 
they  are  wild  and  not  so  easily  handled  as  other  breeds.  A 
few  of  these  sheep  have  been  brought  to  America,  but  they 
are  not  likely  to  meet 
with  general  favor. 

The  Angora  goat  de- 
rives its  name  from  the 
district  of  Angora,  in  Asia. 
These  goats  were  first 
brought  to  America  in 
1849.  when  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  presented  some 
to  Dr.  J.  B.  Davis,  of 

Fig.  53.     Angora  Goat  King  Cromwell, 

oOUth      Carolina.          Large    owned  by  R.  C.  Johnston  of  Kansas.     Photo- 
graph from  the  American  Sheep  Breeder. 

numbers  are  found  to- 
day in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  far  Western 
and  Southwestern  states.  This  breed  is  smaller  than  the 
common  goat,  individuals  usually  weighing  from  60  to  100 
pounds.  The  color  is  pure  white.  The  head  has  a  pair  of 
horns  which  slope  backward  and  curve  widely  outward, 
with  some  twist  in  those  of  the  t>uck,  but  none  in  the  doe's. 
The  ears  are  large,  often  six  inches  long  or  more,  and  droop 
downward  slightly.  The  Angora  makes  very  good  mutton/ 
but  is  not  valued  for  this  as  much  as  for  its  fleece, 
commercially  known  as  mohair.  In  fair  specimens  this 
covers  the  body  in  silky,  wavy  ringlets,  which  in  a  year 


96 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


should  become  about  10  inches  long.  The  fleece  ought  to 
show  a  curl  quite  to  the  skin.  An  average  weight  is  about 
3  pounds.  The  better  grade  of  goats  produces  a  mohair  that 
is  highly  valued  for  making  certain  kinds  of  dress  goods, 
plushes  for  upholstering  work,  etc.  Angoras  have  been 
regarded  with  favor  by  some  for  clearing  land  of  under- 
brush. They  eat  the  tender  twigs  and  bark,  and  thus  gradu- 
ally kill  the  bushes.  Goats  have  been  used  for  this  purpose 
in  northern  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  elsewhere. 


Fig.  54.     A  Toggenburg  milch  goat.    Photograph  from  F.  K.  Cooke,  of  Illinois. 

Milch  goats  are  found  not  only  among  different  breeds 
developed  for  milk  production,  but  also  among  the  common 
goats  we  are  all  acquainted  with,  some  of  which  produce 
large  amounts  of  milk.  There  are  several  breeds  in  Europe 
that  have  been  especially  developed  for  milk  production. 
These  include  the  Maltese  goat  on  the  island  of  Malta  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea;  the  Toggenburg,  raised  in  a  valley 


THE  BREEDS  OF  GOATS  97 

by  that  name  in  Switzerland;  the  Saanan,  also  a  Swiss  breed; 
and  several  others.  The  Maltese  is  one  of  the  best  milkers, 
and  may  produce  three  or  four  quarts  a  day.  This  is  a 
hornless  goat,  usually  white  in  color.  The  Toggenburg 
is  rated  highly  as  a  milker,  often  producing  four  or  five  quarts 
a  day.  This  breed  is  medium  brown  in  color,  with  white 
stripes  down  the  face.  The  Saanan  is  a  white  or  creamy- 
colored  goat,  and  is  noted  for  yielding  equally  well  with  the 
Toggenburg.  In  Europe  goats  are  milked  about  six  months 
before  drying  off.  There  is  some  demand  for  the  milk  of  the 
goat,  because  it  agrees  so  well  with  invalids  and  children. 
In  regions  outside  of  America  where  poor  people  live  in 
large  numbers,  goats  are  commonly  kept  as  a  source  of  milk. 
The  people  of  these  countries  value  them  highly,  and  they 
mean  as  much  to  them  as  milch  cows  mean  to  us. 


SOME  THINGS  YOU  MIGHT  REMEMBER  ABOUT  SHEEP 

1.  The  three  classes  or  groups. 

2.  How  the  Merino  breed  was  introduced  and  promoted  in  America. 

3.  Some  of  the  features  of  Merino  wool. 

4.  Who  Ellman  and  Webb  were,  and  what  they  did. 

5.  What  the  Southdown  is  valued  for  today. 

6.  Why  the  Shropshire  is  popular. 

7.  The  origin  of  the  Oxford  Down. 

8.  The  color  markings  of  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Oxford,  and 
Hampshire. 

9.  What  breeds  of  mutton  sheep  have  horns  in  both  sexes. 

10.  Why  the  head  of  the  Cheviot  is  attractive. 

11.  What  breed  of  sheep  Bakewell  improved. 

12.  Why  mutton  from  the  large  breeds  is  not  popular. 

13.  Where  the  Lincoln  is  popular  and  the  prices  it  brings. 

14.  What  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  is,  and  its  use. 

7— 


98  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

SOME  OTHER  THINGS  WORTH  KNOWING 

15.  What  kind  of  sheep  is  most  common  in  the  state  you  live  in? 

16.  Who  among  your  friends  has  the  largest  flock  of  pure-bred 
sheep? 

17.  How  many  breeds  can  you  learn  of  within  ten  miles  of  home? 

18.  As  far  as  you  can  learn,  what  is  the  heaviest  fleece  produced 
in  your  county,  and  from  what  breed  and  sex? 

19.  Can  you  get  some  samples  of  wool  of  pure-bred  sheep? 

20.  What  kind  of  sheep  exhibit  do  you  have  at  your  state  fair? 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

The  wild  hog,  or  wild  boar,  as  it  is  usually  called,  of  which 
there  are  different  forms,  is  found  in  widely  separated  parts 
of  tne  world.  The  common  wild  boar  from  which  the 
improved  breeds  of  today  are  descended,  has  been  known  in 
Europe  since  early  historical  times.  This  boar  was  common 
in  England  until  the  time  of  Henry  II,  about  1250.  Boar 
hunting  was  a  favorite 
pastime  not  only  with 
the  Romans,  but  even  in 
the  present  day,  in  sec- 
tions of  Germany  and 
eastern  Europe,  wild 
boars  furnish  royal  sport. 
In  India  these  animals 
are  hunted  extensively 
by  men  on  horseback, 
in  a  sport  called  "pig 
sticking."  The  wild  Fig-  55- 
hog  is  larger  than  the 
domestic  one,  and  is  very  swift  and  strong.  It  is  grayish- 
black  in  color.  The  rough  skin  is  covered  with  short,  wooly 
hair,  over  which  are  laid  stiff,  coarse  bristles,  especially  along 
the  spine.  When  the  boar  is  angry  or  excited,  these  bristles 
usually  stand  erect.  The  head  is  rather  large,  long,  and 
rough,  and  the  older  animals  have  short,  heavy  tusks  that 
curve  backward  and  away  from  the  snout,  and  which  are 
used  in  fighting.  The  wild  hog  is  native  to  marshy  forests. 


The  Wild  Boar.     Reproduced  from 
The  Hog,  by  Youatt. 


100  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  early  forms  of  the  domestic  hog  were  found 
among  the  people  of  several  countries,  but  more  especially 
Great  Britain,  southern  Europe,  and  China.  Domestic 
swine  were  kept  in  herds  in  England  as  far  back  as  863 
years  before  Christ.  It  is  said  that  in  Greece  large  droves 
were  cared  for  by  swineherds  perhaps  3000  years  ago.  In 
Italy  these  animals  have  long  been  valued,  and  the  blue- 
skinned,  thin-haired,  long-legged  Neapolitan  hog  of  that 
country  was  imported  into  England  perhaps  two  centuries 
ago  to  improve  the  Berkshire  and  the  coarse  white  hogs  of 
Great  Britain.  The  Chinese  produced  a  class  of  white  pigs 
that  American  and  British  sailors  bought  on  their  travels 
and  brought  home,  which  were  used  to  improve  the  native 
stock.  Red  hogs  bred  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  were  also 
brought  to  America  over  a  century  ago,  and  their  blood 
mingled  with  our  common  stock.  From  this  ancestry, 
after  long  years  of  careful  breeding,  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  have  come  our  present  highly  improved  domes- 
tic breeds  of  swine,  of  which  the  following  are  of  interest. 

The  Berkshire  hog  is  a  native  of  England,  and  receives 
its  name  because  of  its  early  development  in  the  county  of 
Berks.  This  is  a  region  of  mild  temperature  in  south-central 
England,  well  suited  to  live  stock.  The  Berkshire  was 
known  as  a  breed  late  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Then  it 
was  black,  or  reddish-brown  in  color  with  black  or  light  spots, 
and  had  large  ears  hanging  down  in  front.  It  was  small 
boned  and  fattened  easily  for  those  times,  and  frequently 
weighed  over  a  thousand  pounds.  It  was  improved  by  the 
use  of  Neapolitan  and  Chinese  blood  in  particular.  In  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  it  was  considered 
the  best  breed  in  England,  the  Berkshire  was  still  reddish 
or  sandy-colored,  with  more  or  less  black  spots,  but  was  not 
so  large  and  coarse  as  those  of  the  previous  century.  In  the 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


101 


early  days,  Richard  Astly  and  Lord  Barrington  did  much  to 
improve  the  Berkshire.  This  hog  was  first  brought  to 
America  in  1823  by  an  English  farmer  who  lived  in  New 
Jersey.  Soon  after  others  were  imported,  and  since  then 
large  numbers  of  these  pigs  have  been  brought  to  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  features 
of  the  Berkshire  today.  The  color  is  black,  with  more  or 
less  white  on  the  face,  feet,  and  tail.  When  all  four  legs,  the 


Fig.  56.     The  champion  Berkshire  boar  at  Ohio  State  Fair  1911.     Photograph 
from  Graham  Tanner. 

face,  and  tail  are  marked  thus,  they  are  termed  the  "six 
white  points."  The  head  is  fairly  "short,  the  nose  slightly 
curved  up  or  the  head  "dish  faced/'  as  it  is  termed,  and  the 
ears  are  erect  and  pointing  slightly  forward.  The  head  of 
the  Berkshire  is  one  of  its  most  important  breed  characters. 
The  size  is  medium  to  large,  mature  boars  often  weighing 
500  pounds,  and  sows  about  400.  Occasionally  a  boar  in 
show  flesh  weighs  from  700  to  800  pounds.  The  Berkshire 
should  have  a  wide,  strong  back,  but  not  much  arched,  and 


102  '  'BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

have  a  thick,  full  ham.  He  should  have  good  legs 
and  bone,  and  should  stand  well  on  his  feet.  The  sows 
farrow  medium-sized  litters,  averaging  about  eight  pigs. 

Berkshires  are  fair  feeders,  and  mature  just  moderately 
well  under  ordinary  conditions.  If  not  fed  too  much  corn, 
they  make  a  grade  of  pork  that  is  unsurpassed.  In  the  corn 
belt  of  America,  with  the  feed  and  care  given  by  Western 
farmers,  the  Berkshire  may  be  regarded  as  a  lard  hog; 
while  if  fed  a  variety  of  grain,  with  corn  only  a  moderate 
part  of  the  ration,  it  makes  a  superior  bacon.  It  has  always 
been  a  popular  breed  of  swine  in  England  and  America,  but 
is  not  today  as  extensively  kept  as  the  Poland-China  or 
Duroc-Jersey.  Yet  its  merits  have  long  been  recognized 
among  the  critics  of  high-class  pork.  The  breed  is  more 
widely  distributed  than  any  other  in  North  America,  being 
found  in  about  every  state  and  in  Canada,  and  thrives  under 
a  wide  range  of  conditions.  It  is  the  most  popular  breed  in 
the  East  and  South.  In  the  West  it  is  in  less  favor  than  the 
Poland-China  or  Duroc-Jersey. 

The  Poland-China  is  an  American  breed  of  swine  that 
originated  in  southwestern  Ohio  in  Butler  and  Warren 
counties.  This  is  a  rolling  country,  and  produces  extensive 
fields  of  corn,  wheat,  and  grass.  There  is  no  better  region 
in  America  in  which  to  raise  hogs.  In  that  section  the  early 
settlers  kept  large  numbers  of  hogs,  fed  off  their  corn,  and 
drove  the  hogs  overland  to  the  Cincinnati  market.  Dif- 
ferent so-called  breeds  came  into  Ohio,  including  the  Russian, 
Byfield,  Big  China,  Irish  Grazier,  and  Berkshire,  the  latter 
being  taken  to  the  state  in  1835.  From  this  mixture,  in 
time  came  the  Poland-China.  At  first  this  was  a  big,  coarse, 
spotted  hog,  which  was  rated  as  a  good  feeder.  The  coarse- 
ness was  gradually  reduced,  no  doubt  the  Berkshire  blood 
bringing  a  very  great  improvement. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  103 

The  prominent  early  breeders  of  the  Poland-China  were 
the  Shakers  and  other  farmers  in  Warren  County.  John 
Harkrader  did  much  to  improve  them,  and  following  him 
D.  M.  Magie,  of  Butler  County,  no  doubt  did  much  for  the 
breed.  Pigs  of  his  breeding  were  widely  known  at  one  time 
as  "Magie  hogs."  During  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  there  were  many  noted  herds  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois.  Although  the  Poland-China  was  long  a  black 
and  white  spotted  breed,  a  change  took  place  in  this  respect, 


Fig.  57.     Globe  Perfection,  first  prize  Poland-China  boar  at  Ohio  State  Fair. 
Bred  by  Ed.  Klever,  of  Ohio.     Photograph  by  the  author 

and  black,  with  a  small  amount  of  white,  especially   on 
face  and  feet  became  popular,  and  is  so  today. 

In  present  color  markings  the  Poland-China  much 
resembles  the  Berkshire.  The  head  is  of  medium  length, 
and  rather  straight  in  the  face;  the  ears,  which  should  be 
somewhat  thin,  point  forward  and  then  break  over  to  form 
what  is  called  a  lop  ear.  A  good  head  lacks  coarseness,  and 
inclines  to  be  wide  between  the  eyes,  and  is  somewhat  short, 
but  is  never  dished.  The  body  form  of  this  breed  is  quite 


104  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

distinctly  its  own,  the  neck  being  short,  the  back  wide  and 
frequently  strongly  arched,  and  the  hams  highly  devel- 
oped. These  features  of  head,  arch  of  back,  and  thickness 
of  hams  are  Poland-China  characteristics.  The  legs  are 
often  fine  of  bone,  and  incline  to  be  moderately  short,  the 
pigs  standing  just  fairly  well  on  their  feet.  Mature  boars 
often  weigh  around  500  pounds,  and  sows  400  pounds.  A 
boar  weighing  700  pounds  is  of  large  size. 

The  Poland-China  is  distinctly  of  the  lard  type,  and  as 
it  puts  on  fat  easily,  is  noted  as  a  feeder's  hog.  When  well 
fattened  the  carcass  dresses  out  well,  and  is  popular 
with  butchers.  The  pigs  often  mature  too  rapidly,  not 
getting  as  much  growth  as  they  should  have  for  their  age. 
Poland-China  sows  average  smaller  litters  than  any  of  the 
other  common  breeds.  This  has  caused  considerable 
unfavorable  comment  among  farmers.  It  is  an  excellent 
grazing  breed  and  will  do  well  on  clover  or  other  succulent 
green  pasture.  At  the  present  time  there  is  much  discussion 
among  Poland-China  breeders  regarding  type,  one  group 
preferring  a  medium-sized,  rather  fine-boned,  tidy  type; 
while  another  set  of  men  demand  what  they  call  "big 
Polands,"  which  mature  into  large  animals  having  strong, 
heavy  bone,  and  make  good  feeders.  .The  Poland-China 
has  been  one  of  America's  most  popular  breeds,  but  at  the 
present  day  it  is  not  in  such  universal  favor.  This  is  due  to 
lack  of  size  or  growthfulness,  and  to  the  small  size  of  litter. 
Where  well  developed,  it  is  one  of  our  most  important  breeds 
for  the  corn  belt. 

The  Duroc- Jersey  is  a  red  or  sandy-colored  breed  of 
swine  that  no  doubt  obtained  its  special  color  markings  from 
the  coarse  red  hog  brought  from  Africa,  and  from  sandy  or 
reddish  English  hogs,  such  as  the  Tamworth  and  sandy 
Berkshire.  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  the  famous 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


105 


statesman,  imported  some  red  hogs  from  Portugal  in  1852, 
which  reached  America  about  the  time  of  his  death.  In  New 
Jersey  large  red  hogs  had  been  grown  for  many  years,  where 
they  became  known  as  Jersey  Reds.  In  New  York  State 
another  variety  of  red  pigs  developed  that  were  called  Durocs. 
They  were  smaller  and  finer  in  bone  than  the  Jersey  Reds. 
The  blood  of  these  two  families  was  mingled  together,  from 
which  was  developed  what  we  now  call  the  Duroc-Jersey. 
The  present-day  Duroc-Jersey  is  red  in  color,  of  which  there 


Fig.  58.  Good-Enuf-Again,  champion  Duroc-Jersey 
boar  at  Ohio  State  Fair.  Owned  by  W.  H.  Robbins,  of 
Ohio.  Photograph  from  owner. 

are  various  shades,  ranging  from  sandy  or  light  red  to  a 
cherry  color  or  dark  red.  A  medium  red  shade  is  the  most 
popular.  The  head  has  a  straight  face,  and  the  ears  lop 
over  forward.  The  back  is  usually  slightly  arched  and 
the  ribs  are  well  sprung.  The  hams  do  not  show  quite  the 
thickness  of  the  Poland-China,  but  are  likely  to  be  of  good 
size.  The  legs  carry  more  bone  than  do  most  other  breeds, 
and  the  hogs  stand  very  well  on  the  feet.  The  Duroc- 
Jerseys  of  a  few  years  ago  were  inclined  to  be  rather  rough, 
and  were  frequently  heavy  of  shoulder  and  had  creases  more 


106  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

or  less  along  the  sides.  They  have  been  greatly  improved, 
however,  in  recent  years.  As  to  size,  the  boars  easily  weigh 
600  pounds,  and  the  sows  450.  Duroc-Jerseys  mature  fairly 
early,  and  finish  off  in  fattening  at  200  to  250  pounds,  at  six 
months  of  age.  The  breed  has  not  thus  far  made  much 
of  a  showing  in  carcass  test  competition.  The  sows  seem 
capable  of  having  large  litters,  this  being  the  most  pro- 
lific of  the  lard-type  breeds.  Duroc-Jerseys  are  produced 
more  especially  in  the  Middle-western  states  where  corn  is 
abundant  and  where  they  are  very  popular.  Many  herds 
of  Poland-China  have  given  way  to  the  Duroc-Jersey.  Ohio, 
Illinois,  and  Iowa  have  more  of  this  breed  than  any  other 
three  states. 

The  Chester  White  breed  of  hogs  gets  its  name  from 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  where  it  has  been  bred  for 
a  great  many  years.  Claims  have  been  made  that  the  early 
colonists  brought  over  coarse  white  pigs  to  Pennsylvania. 
In  1820  a  Captain  Jeffries,  of  Westchester,  Pennsylvania, 
brought  from  England  some  white  hogs.  Others  of  the  same 
color  also  found  their  way  into  that  section.  White  hogs 
were  brought  to  Ohio  at  an  early  date,  and  the  Todd  family 
in  that  state  became  noted  for  developing  what  is  known  as 
Todd's  Improved  Chester  White.  During  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  Mr.  L.  B.  Silver,  of  Ohio,  devel- 
oped a  strain  of  this  breed,  which  is  now  known  as  the  Ohio 
Improved  Chester  White.  This  is  frequently  called  the 
0.  I.  C.  hog.  All  these  different  families  or  blood  lines, 
however,  represent  the  same  breed,  and  differ  only  in  minor 
details.  Ihe  Chester  White,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  white. 
Occasionally,  small,  black  spots  occur  on  the  skin.  This 
is  generally  the  case  with  all  white  breeds  known  in  America. 
The  head  rather  resembles  that  of  the  Poland-China,  in  that 
the  face  is  straight  and  the  ears  lopped  over.  The  Chester 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


107 


White  is  a  true  lard  type  of  hog.  It  is  a  splendid  feeder,  and 
when  well  fattened,  carries  a  very  broad,  arched  back  and  an 
excellent  ham.  The  quality  of  bone  in  the  legs  is  frequently 
too  fine,  and  mature  animals  often  stand  badly  on  their  feet. 
The  quality  of  pork  is  excellent,  if  one  does  not  object  to 
the  large  amount  of  fat.  This  is  one  of  the  large  breeds,  the 
0. 1.  C.  hogs  weighing  very  heavy.  The  usual  run  of  mature 


Fig.  59.     A  Chester  White  boar.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

boars  will  weigh  around  600  pounds,  and  the  sows  450  pounds. 
The  sows  farrow  good-sized  litters,  the  breed  ranldng  close 
to  the  Duroc-Jersey  in  this  respect.  Sows  commonly  have 
nine  pigs  to  the  litter.  Chester  Whites  are  widely  distrib- 
uted as  a  breed  in  the  North,  and  especially  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  In  the  South  any  white  breed  is  unpopular  on 
account  of  color,  white  hogs  blistering  under  the  sun  more 
readily  than  red  or  black  ones.  Ohio  and  Indiana  have  many 
Chester  White  herds. 


108  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  Large  Yorkshire,  called  in  England  the  "  Large 
White,"  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  swine.  Large,  coarse, 
white  hogs  were  bred  in  eastern  and  northeastern  England 
before  distinctions  of  types  and  breeds  were  known.  English 
writers  of  over  a  century  ago  refer  to  these  large,  slow- 
maturing,  narrow-backed  coarse  white  hogs.  They  were 
improved  by  selection  and  breeding,  and  this  work  was  done 


Fig.  60.     A  large  Yorkshire  sow,  owned  by  the  Ohio  State  University.     Photo- 
graph by  F.  H.  Haskett. 

in  part  by  factory  hands  and  laborers  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  Joseph  Tuley  was  prominent  in  this  work. 
The  Large  Yorkshire  belongs  to  the  bacon  class.  As 
grown  today,  it  is  the  largest  of  the  breeds.  Boars  at 
maturity  often  weigh  700  pounds  or  more,  and  sows  500 
pounds.  The  head  inclines  to  be  a  trifle  long,  from  an 
American  point  of  view,  and  is  sometimes  slightly  dished. 
The  ears  should  be  carried  erect,  but  with  age  they  usually 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  109 

incline  forward.  The  body  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  should 
show  considerable  length  and  have  smooth  deep  sides,  from 
which  bacon  may  be  cut  to  the  best  advantage.  The  back 
lacks  the  width  and  the  ham  the  thickness  of  the  lard  type. 
The  legs  often  appear  long  for  the  depth  of  body.  Large 
Yorkshires  do  not  mature  early  nor  fatten  and  finish  off 
so  readily  as  do  hogs  of  the  lard  type.  They  rather  tend  to 
continue  their  growth  until  they  have  attained  considerable 
size  before  laying  on  much  fat.  Even  then  they  will  never 
fatten  like  our  lard  hogs,  although  they  will  gain  as  much  or 
more  in  weight  per  day.  This  hog  is  well  adapted  for  graz- 
ing on  clover  and  other  green  feeds.  The  quality  of  the  meat 
is  of  the  very  best.  More  prime  bacon  is  made  in  Great 
Britain  and  Denmark  from  the  Large  Yorkshire  than  from 
any  other  breed.  The  Danes  make  bacon  production  a  great 
industry,  and  they  rely  on  the  Large  Yorkshire  or  its  grades 
for  this  purpose.  Large  Yorkshire  sows  are  noted  for  far- 
rowing many  pigs  in  a  litter,  this  being  our  most  prolific 
breed.  On  account  of  its  bacon,  this  is  the  leading  breed  in 
Great  Britain  and  Denmark.  In  America,  these  hogs  have 
been  bred  for  a  great  many  years,  but  have  never  been 
popular  in  comparison  with  the  hogs  of  the  lard  type.  They 
are  bred  in  different  sections  of  the  North,  especially  in 
Canada,  and.  in  the  Northwestern  states. 

The  Hampshire  is  a  breed  of  swine  that  until  quite 
recently  was  known  in  sections  of  the  United  States  as  the 
"Thin  Rind."  Where  the  breed  came  from  originally,  no 
one  knows.  It  did  not  come  from  Hampshire,  England,  as 
the  American  Hampshire  Association  has  claimed,  for  the 
English  people  already  have  a  black  breed  with  this  name, 
while  the  American  Hampshire  is  black,  with  a  white  band 
about  the  body.  For  many  years  "Thin  Rind"  hogs  were 
bred  in  a  limited  way  in  Kentucky,  southern  Indiana,  and 


110  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

southern  Illinois,  and  these  were  of  the  bacon  type.  Finally 
the  breed  was  taken  up  by  men  in  the  corn  section  of  Illinois, 
and  it  has  gradually  changed  in  form  to  a  broader-backed, 
thicker  kind,  more  nearly  of  the  lard  type.  This  shows 
what  a  corn  diet  will  do  in  changing  the  form  of  an  animal. 
Hampshire  swine  have  straight  and  rather  long  faces, 
and  the  ears  vary  from  erect  to  leaning  forward.  The 
back  is  of  medium  width  and  the  body  is  usually  very 
smooth  along  the  sides.  The  hams  lack  fullness,  and  the 
legs  tend  to  be  somewhat  long.  The  Hampshire  is  a  good 
feeder,  maturing  just  fairly  early,  and  is  gaining  in  popularity 
on  account  of  the  favor  it  has  with  the  butcher.  In  carcass 
contests,  hogs  of  this  breed  or  its  crosses  have  usually  made 
an  excellent  showing.  The  sows  also  farrow  good-sized 
litters,  a  much  approved  characteristic.  This  is  not  a  large 
breed,  mature  boars  weighing  around  500  pounds,  and  sows 
about  300.  The  most  notable  herds  are  in  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Kentucky. 

The  Tamworth  is  an  old  English  breed  of  extreme  bacon 
type.  Its  native  home  is  central  England,  where  it  was 
known  early  in  the  last  century.  It  is  red  or  chestnut  in 
color  and  of  varying  shades  from  very  light  to  dark.  In 
size  it  is  large,  the  boars  often  weighing  600  pounds  and  the 
sows  450.  The  head  of  the  Tamworth  is  undesirably  long 
and  straight.  The  ears  at  maturity  are  large  and  coarse, 
and  lean  heavily  forward.  The  body  is  narrow,  the  depth 
of  rib  is  short,  the  hams  lack  thickness,  and  the  neck  and  legs 
are  long.  The  Tamworth  does  not  fatten  easily,  and  is  slow 
to  mature,  but  produces  an  excellent  grade  of  bacon.  The 
sows  are  prolific,  having  large  litters.  There  are  but  few  of 
this  breed  in  either  England  or  America,  for  it  is  not  at  all 
popular  on  either  side  of  the  water.  There  are  a  few  herds 


TEE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  111 

in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but  not  enough  to  attract  atten- 
tion at  present. 

The  Cheshire  is  a  medium-sized,  white  breed  of  the  lard 
type,  mostly  bred  in  New  York  State,  the  place  of  its  origin. 
The  breed  originated  about  1855,  with  the  Large  Yorkshire 
as  an  important  blood  line  in  the  parentage.  The  Cheshire 
resembles  to  quite  an  extent  what  the  Englishman  calls  the 
Middle  White,  which  is  really  a  more  compact,  broader- 


Fig.  61.     A  Tamworth  sow.     A  first-prize  winner  at  Ohio  State  Fair.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

backed,  heavier  hammed,  lardier  type  than  the  Large 
Yorkshire.  The  Cheshire  has  a  fair  size,  weighs  well, 
matures  early,  and  feeds  and  fattens  to  advantage.  The 
sows  farrow  good-sized  litters  in  comparison  with  other 
breeds.  This  is  one  of  the  least  known  of  American  hogs. 

The  Victoria  is  a  white  breed  of  swine,  of  which  there  have 
been  two  families,  one  of  New  York  and  the  other  of  Indiana 
origin.  The  latter,  developed  by  a  Mr.  Dyer,  is  the  only  one 
at  all  known  today,  and  but  very  few  herds  of  this  family  are 
in  existence.  It  is  a  breed  quite  comparable  in  appearance 


112  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

to  the  Cheshire,  and  is  of  the  lard  type.  The  few  herds 
kept  are  mainly  for  show  purposes,  to  win  prizes  offered  at 
certain  fairs  where  money  can  be  secured  without  compe- 
tition. 

The  Essex  is  a  black  breed  that  originated  in  eastern 
England.  It  is  of  small  size,  and  fattens  very  well  into  an 
excellent  grade  of  pork.  Its  principal  breed  features  are 
the  black  color,  small  size,  short,  slightly  dished  face,  and 
fine,  erect  ears.  Today  the  Essex  is  almost  unknown  in 
America,  although  at  one  time  it  met  with  a  fair  amount 
of  favor. 

The  Small  Yorkshire,  known  in  England  as  the  "Small 
White,"  is  of  English  origin.  It  was  developed  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  certain  men  wished  a  small,  very 
fat  type  of  pig.  This  is  distinctly  a  small  breed,  weighing 
at  maturity  about  200  pounds.  The  head  is  often  short  and 
extremely  dished,  so  much  so  that  easy  feeding  is  impossible. 
In  fancy  specimens  the  head  is  almost  distorted,  the  ears  are 
erect,  the  neck  short,  back  very  wide,  hams  short  and  thick, 
and  legs  short.  The  Small  Yorkshire  matures  early  and 
fattens  easily  for  its  size,  making  a  very  fat  type  of  pork. 
The  sows  are  not  prolific.  The  breed  has  been  getting  less 
and  less  common  so  that  but  few  are  found  today  in 
America.  In  fact  there  is  no  demand  of  commercial  impor- 
tance for  it  either  in  this  country  or  abroad. 

DO  YOU  REMEMBER  ABOUT 

1.  The  appearance  of  the  wild  boar? 

2.  How  long  ago  herds  of  swine  were  kept  in  England? 

3.  When  the  Berkshire  was  first  brought  to  America? 

4.  The  size  and  form  of  the  Berkshire? 

5.  Where  the  Poland-China  originated? 

6.  The  Poland-China  as  feeders  and  breeders? 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  113 

7.  The  origin  of  the  Duroc-Jersey? 

8.  Who  improved  the  Chester  White? 

9.  The  special  features  of  the  Large  Yorkshire? 

10.  What  change  has  taken  place  with  the  Hampshire? 

11.  The  color  markings  of  each  of  the  four  leading  breeds? 

CAN  YOU  TELL 

12.  What  breeds  are  kept  by  farmers  in  your  township? 

13.  Which  is  the  most  popular  breed  in  your  section? 

14.  Who  has  been  an  exhibitor  of  pure-bred  swine  in  your  county? 

15.  Whether  the  breeders  of  your  native  state  have  an  important 
influence  in  improving  the  breeds  elsewhere? 

16.  If  the  swine  show  at  your  last  county  fair  was  a  creditable  one? 
Also  at  the  state  fair? 

17.  Whether  improved  breeds  are  kept  on  any  county  or  state 
farms  in  the  state  in  which  you  live? 


CHAPTER  VI 
ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 

Farm  animals  in  early  days  in  America  were  usually  very 
inferior.  The  settlers  of  New  England  and  the  older  states 
did  not  give  much  attention  to  live  stock.  Until  we  had 
large  cities  we  had  no  important  live-stock  markets.  The 
farmers  produced  but  little  more  than  was  needed  for  the 
local  home  sales.  In.  1830  the  first  railway  was  built  in 
America.  Before  that,  people  drove  live  stock  long  distances 
to  market.  As  early  as  1804,  cattle  were  driven  overland 
from  Ohio  to  Baltimore  to  find  buyers.  West  of  the  Miss- 
issippi, large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  developed  with  the 
settlement  of  the  country.  There  were  great  drives  of 
cattle  and  sheep  overland  to  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  and 
other  places.  It  was  not  till  1865  that  the  Union  Stock 
Yards  of  Chicago  opened  for  business.  Now  it  is  much  the 
largest  live-stock  market  in  the  world. 

The  study  of  animal  form  in  a  large  way  really  began 
with  the  selling  of  stock  in  the  market.  At  first  people 
were  not  very  particular.  An  increase  in  population,  how- 
ever, increased  the  demand  for  meat.  Then  men  began  to 
buy  from  the  farmer  and  to  sell  animals  in  the  markets. 
These  sellers  naturally  saw  certain  differences  in  their  stock. 
They  saw  that  some  beasts  served  a  given  purpose  better 
than  others,  and  that  some  were  really  worth  more  than 
others  for  the  same  purpose.  So  the  men  who  sold  in  the 
markets  began  to  use  special  words  to  indicate  the  kind  of 
stock  they  were  talking  about. 


ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  115 

At  first  it  was  only  a  "good"  animal,  or  a  "poor"  one. 
Then  other  words  came  into  use  to  show  still  finer  differences. 
If  one  looks  over  the  market  quotations  in  the  early  num- 
.bers  of  the  oldest  agricultural  papers,  he  will  find  just  such 
words  used  in  references  to  the  stock.  In  the  course  of 
time,  people  began  to  see  that  farm  animals  differed  in  type. 

The  word  type,  as  applied  to  live  stock  refers  to  the  special 
form  or  purpose  of  an  animal.  For  example,  we  say 
that  a  horse  is  of  the  draft  type.  This  means  that  he  is 
large  and  strong,  and  especially  formed  to  haul  heavy  loads. 
As  stockmen  use  this  word,  however,  it  does  not  mean  that 
the  animal  referred  to  is  perfect.  It  is  simply  an  expression 
that  the  horse  or  cow  or  whatever  it  may  be,  belongs  to  a 
special  group  in  which  we  find  others  of  various  degrees  of 
merit.  The  word  type  has  not  been  used  many  years  by 
stockmen.  At  the  present  time,  however,  all  our  farm  ani- 
mals may  be  separated  into  fairly  distinct,  well-known  types. 
The  more  simple  classifications  are  as  follows: 
HORSES  CATTLE 

1.  Draft  type  1.  Beef  type 

2.  Coach  or  carriage  type  2.  Dairy  type 

3.  Light  harness  or  speed  type  3.  Dual  or  general-purpose 

4.  Ponies  type 

SHEEP  SWINE 

1.  Mutton  type  1.  Lard  type 

2.  Wool  or  Merino  type  2.  Bacon  type 

All  of  our  farm  animals  may  be  sorted,  and  each  one  placed 
in  a  group  representing  one  of  these  types.  Each  of  our 
breeds  of  live  stock,  also,  has  one  or  more  types.  Where 
there  is  more  than  one  type  in  a  breed,  it  is  the  result  of 
different  lines  of  breeding.  At  the  present  time  we  hear  more 
or  less  about  the  American  type  and  the  Island  type  of  Jer- 
sey; the  American  type  being  somewhat  larger,  coarser, 
plainer-headed,  and  less  symmetrical  in  udder  than  the 


116  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Island  type.  Some  of  the  more  important  features  that 
apply  to  each  of  the  commonly  recognized  types  are 
briefly  stated  in  the  following  descriptions.  More  might  be 
added  to  each  description,  but  this  is  not  essential  at  this, 
time. 

The  draft  horse  type  is  massive,  showing  great  power  for 
hauling  loads.  A  horse  of  this  kind  should  have  a  large  head ; 
thick,  strong  neck;  very  broad  back;  large,  deep  body;  a 
long,  heavily-muscled  hind  part;  a  set  of  four  strong-boned, 
muscular  legs,  and  large,  well-formed  feet.  From  a  front 
view,  such  a  horse  appears  thick  through  from  the  breast  to 
the  tail.  From  one  side  he  appears  short,  deep,  and  com- 
pact of  body.  The  smaller  sized  draft  horse  is  often  termed 
"chunky,"  as  expressing  this  compactness.  Horses  of  this 
type  weigh  from  1500  pounds  upwards. 

The  coach  or  carriage  horse  type  lacks  the  large  size  of 
the  drafter,  and  is  of  more  refined  appearance.  This  horse 
should  have  a  lean,  attractive  head;  a  long,  graceful  neck; 
a  body  of  medium  width  and.  depth,  round  and  nicely  turned ; 
long,  smooth,  well  filled  out  hind  parts;  and  a  set  of  well- 
muscled,  smooth-boned  legs,  and  first  class  feet.  Good 
form  in  this  type  should  show  some  length  and  smoothness 
of  outline.  Coach  horses  are  valued  for  their  ability  to 
walk  or  trot  with  a  strong,  high-acting  gait.  Horses  of  this 
type  should  weigh  1250  pounds,  though  many  excellent 
ones  weigh  more  and  some  less. 

The  light  harness  or  speed  horse  type  is  well  represented 
in  a  medium-sized  trotting  horse.  He  shows  a  small,  neat- 
looking  head;  rather  thin,  moderately  long  neck;  a  narrow- 
ness above  the  shoulders;  the  body  narrow  on  top,  though  it 
should  be  of  good  depth;  the  hind  end  rather  muscular;  and 
tne  legs  small  and  neat,  without  much  flesh.  The  entire 
form  shows  a  muscular  development  and  lightness  of  limb 


ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  117 

that  suggests  speed.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  size 
of  horses  of  this  type,  and  weights  of  900  to  1100  pounds 
are  common. 

The  pony  type  is  really  that  of  a  small-sized  horse.  A 
pony  must  not  stand  over  58  inches  high.  If  he  does,  he 
is  placed  in  the  horse  class.  There  are  a  number  of  different 
kinds  of  ponies,  and  among  these  may  be  found  types 
corresponding  to  those  of  horses  already  described. 

Beef  cattle  type  is  rather  comparable  to  the  draft  type 
in  horses.  Cattle  of  this  kind  have  short,  thick  necks; 
very  broad  backs;  deep  bodies;  long,  wide,  thick  hind  parts; 
and  short  legs.  The  breast  is  wide,  the  body  thick  and  deep, 
and  the  entire  form  is  compact  and  smoothly  covered  with 
flesh,  and  well  filled  out  before  and  behind.  Meat  production 
is  easily  seen  to  be  a  feature  of  this  type. 

Dairy  cattle  type  is  the  opposite  of  the  beef  sort.  The  head 
is  placed  on  a  long  and  muscular  neck;  the  body  is  narrow 
over  the  shoulders;  the  back  is  not  wide  but  the  body  has 
depth;  the  hind  parts  are  lean,  long,  and  lacking  in  flesh; 
and  the  legs  are  small  and  thinly  muscular.  Considerable 
length  and  narrowness  of  body;  a  distinct  lack  of  flesh, 
making  for  angularity  of  form;  and  a  well-developed  udder 
on  the  female,  are  special  features  of  this  type. 

The  dual  or  general-purpose  cattle  type  has  certain 
features  between  the  beef  and  dairy  types.  The  entire  body 
should  be  less  thick  and  beefy  than  the  beef  form,  but  yet 
with  a  fair  amount  of  thickness.  The  fact  is,  if  a  beef  cow 
has  a  large,  fine,  shapely  udder,  and  milks  well,  she  may  be 
classed  as  a  dual-purpose  animal,  because  she  combines 
important  features  of  the  other  two  types.  Comparing  the 
males,  the  dual-purpose  type  is  usually  longer  and  narrower 
of  body  and  more  muscular,  and  not  so  thick  of  outline  in 
front  or  behind,  as  is  the  beef  bull. 


118 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  mutton  sheep  type  may  be  compared  to  the  draft 
horse  and  beef  cattle  types.  It  is  short  and  thick  of  neck; 
wide  and  level  of  back;  broad  and  full  at  chest  and  at  the 
hind  end,  and  with  short,  fine-boned  legs.  A  mutton  sheep,  when 
fat,  is  smooth  and  plump  of  body,  although  this  smoothness 
is  not  usually  seen,  the  body  being  covered  with  wool. 

The  fine-wool  sheep  or  Merino  type  has  been  com- 
pared to  the  light  harness  horse  and  the  dairy  cow.  Its 


Fig.  62.     A  dual-purpose  cow.     Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 

principal  purpose  is  to  produce  wool.  Therefore,  we  expect 
to  find  the  body  narrow  throughout,  especially  along  over 
the  top  of  the  shoulders.  This  type  is  muscular,  and  is 
rather  narrow  in  front  and  behind,  with  thin  thighs,  lacking 
the  meaty  form  of  the  mutton  sheep.  A  fine  fleece  of  wool 
covered  on  the  outside  with  more  or  less  dirty  brown  grease, 
is  seen  on  this  type  during  much  of  the  year.  There 


ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  119 

are  some  fine-wooled  sheep  that  might  properly  be  classed 
as  dual-purpose  in  type,  only  not  much  attempt  is  being  made 
to  establish  such  a  class. 

The  lard  hog  type  is  the  one  most  familiar  to  Americans. 
In  fair  condition  of  flesh,  this  hog  is  noticeable  for  his  com- 
pact form,  width  of  back,  depth  of  body,  and  thickness  from 
breast  to  hams.  Fattened  heavily,  these  hogs  sometimes 
cause  one  to  wonder  how  such  a  weight  and  wealth  of  flesh 
can  be  supported  on  four  small  legs.  From  this  broad, 
smooth,  deeply-covered  back  may  be  taken  thick  layers 
of  fat,  from  which  lard  is  made.  This  feature  of  heavy  fat 
production  explains  why  this  is  called  the  lard  type. 

The  bacon  hog  type  impresses  one  as  having  considerable 
length  of  body,  with  a  narrowness  all  through,  quite  in  con- 
trast with  the  lardy  sort.  This  type  should  have  a  long, 
smooth,  deep  side  to  the  body,  for  it  is  from  this  part  that 
bacon  is  obtained.  As  this  hog  does  not  fatten  so  heavily  as 
the  lard  type,  it  produces  the  best  kind  of  meat  for  bacon, 
hence  is  called  the  bacon  type. 

The  grouping  of  live  stock  on  the  market  into  classes,  was 
the  final  result  of  the  development  of  the  modern  live-stock 
trade.  As  the  population  grew,  the  demand  for  variety  and 
for  special  purposes  increased  as  never  before.  There  were 
new  uses  for  horses,  and  meat  animals  were  sold  for 
a  much  greater  variety  of  needs  than  used  to  be  thought 
possible.  So  today,  we  find  in  the  big  markets  that  all  types 
of  live  stock  are  grouped  into  different  commercial  classes, 
and  then  each  class  is  graded  according  to  its  merit.  For 
example,  here  we  have  the  beef  type,  and  within  this  a  num- 
ber of  different  classes.  One  class,  known  in  the  larger  stock 
yards  as  beef  cattle,  is  considered  fattened  and  finished  for 
the  butcher,  being  ready  for  killing.  Another  class,  known 
as  stackers  and  feeders,  is  sold  to  go  back  to  the  farms  for 


120 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


further  feeding  and  fattening.  Another  class,  called  butcher 
stock,  consists  of  fat  cows  and  heifers.  Then  there  are 
various  other  classes  of  stock,  such  as  calves,  butcher  hogs, 
Western  lambs,  feeding  sheep,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  included 
in  the  different  types  described. 

The  market  grades  of  live  stock  are  also  important.     Each 
class  is  divided  into  different  grades.     Beginning  with  the 


Fig.  63.  A  type  of  beef  cattle.  King  Ellsworth,  grand-champion  steer, 
1909  International  Live  Stock  Exposition.  Photograph  by  courtesy  The 
Farmer. 

best  and  grading  toward  the  poorest,  these  grades  with  meat 
stock  in  general,  in  each  class,  are  as  follows :  prime,  choice, 
good,  medium,  common,  inferior.  Some  other  terms  are 
often  used,  such  as  extra  prime,  good  to  medium,  etc.  These 
words  or  terms  of  course  are  used  to  express  the  relative 
values  of  animals  of  the  same  general  class.  A  prime  steer, 
for  example,  is  one  with  the  largest  amount  of  high-priced 
meat  that  the  butcher  thinks  will  cut  out  to  the  best  ad  van- 


ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  121 

tage.  So  in  the  prime  animal  the  buyer  looks  for  a  wide 
back,  deep  body,  thick,  meaty  hind  quarters,  and  a  frame 
entirely  covered  with  a  smooth,  thick  layer  of  flesh  that  will 
cut  up  well  with  as  little  offaj  as  possible.  To  ensure  small 
waste,  an  animal  must  be  what  we  call  well-fattened,  and 
have  no  coarseness  or  heaviness  of  bone.  As  one  goes  down 
the  line  of  grades,  each  of  these  desirable  features  is  less  to  be 
seen.  Thus  an  inferior  steer  would  show  a  small  percentage 


Fig.  6-4.     Feeder  calves  of  William  George,  of  Illinois.     Photograph  by  courtesy 
The  Farmer. 


of  high-priced  cuts,  would  lack  in  condition  and  quality  of 
flesh,  and  show  much  waste  at  slaughter.  These  grades 
have  the  same  relative  importance  in  live  stock  as  similar 
terms  have  in  grading  corn  or  wheat.  For  comparison,  we 
have  dent  corn  for  one  type  and  sugar  corn  for  another. 
Dent  corn  we  classify  into  white  and  yellow,  and  then  grade 
each  of  these  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.,  the  best  being  No.  1, 
comparable  to  the  term  prime  in  live  stock.  Put  in  the  form 


122  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

of  a  simple  diagram,  the  relation  of  classes  and  grades  may 
be  shown  as  follows: 

CLASSES —  GRADES — 

Prime 


fBeef  cattle. 


BEEF  TYPE  j  Butcher  stock 

[Stackers  and  feeders 


Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common 

Inferior 


All  markets  do  not  have  exactly  the  same  classes  and 
grades  of  stock.  The  larger  a  market,  the  more  the  dealers 
divide  animals  into  classes  and  grades,  for  the  widest  demand 
for  different  kinds  here  exist.  In  the  small  market  not  so 
much  attention  is  paid  to  the  details  of  class;  but  the  dealers 
are  quick  to  recognize  the  merits  of  a  grade.  In 
some  markets  we  find  the  people  more  interested 
in  one  kind  of  stock  than  another.  St.  Louis  is  a  noted 
horse  market,  Buffalo  has  long  been  famous  for  sheep,  and 
Chicago  is  the  great  hog  center.  These  large  markets,  to  a 
certain  extent,  require  other  markets,  through  a  live-stock 
exchange,  to  classify  and  grade  animals  so  that  selling  values 
are  fairly  comparable.  In  small  towns  without  regular 
markets,  merit  in  an  animal  is  easily  seen  by  men  who  buy 
if  they  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  type  and  its  meaning. 

A  knowledge  of  animal  type  is  necessary  if  one  wishes  to 
understand  why  some  animals  serve  one  purpose  and  some 
another.  There  is  a  distinct  relation  of  the  form  of  the 
animal  to  its  special  use.  The  race  horse  is  light  of  body, 
narrow  but  deep  of  chest,  has  splendid  lung  capacity,  has 
slender  but  strong  legs,  is  very  muscular,  and  is  built  for 
speed.  The  Arab  horse,  the  British  Thoroughbred,  and  the 
American  trotter  each  has  these  features  well  marked',  if  he 
is  a  good  specimen  of  the  type.  The  less  he  has  of  these 


ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 


123 


qualities,  the  poorer  he  is  as  a  race  horse.  A  Merino  sheep 
of  the  A  type  is  rather  narrow  of  back,  long  of  rib,  has 
short,  fine  legs,  is  very 
muscular,  and  its  entire 
body,  including  head 
and  legs,  is  heavily  cov- 
ered in  folds  with  a 
fine,  oily  fleece.  This 
type  of  sheep  is  formed 
to  produce  wool,  and 
it  has  very  little  value 
for  meat.  The  Merino 

,  /•  r»       •  /»     *  Fig-  65.     A  Class  A  Merino  ram,  owned 

Sheep  Of  Spam,  Of  AUS-     by  S.  Blamer  &  Son,  of  Ohio.     Photograph 
-,.  r\i  •          •  />         /.     from  the  owners. 

tralia,   or  Ohio,   if    of 

the  A  type,  are  all  much  the  same  kind,  and  each  pro- 
duces wool  of  the  finest  sort.  The  more  the  inclination  to 
mutton  development,  the  less  fine  and  heavy  is  the 
fleece.  The  hog  best  suited  to  lard  production  has  a 
short  neck,  wide  back,  deep  sides,  large  hams,  and  short 
legs;  and  when  well  fattened,  his  body  is  covered  with 

a  thick  layer  of  fat. 
This  type  of  hog  has 
been  bred  in  America  to 
produce  fat  in  the  ex- 
treme. The  narrower  his 
back,  the  longer  his  head, 
neck,  and  legs,  the  less 
fat  meat  will  he  produce. 
The  race  horse,  the  Me- 
rino, and  the  lard  type 

Fig.  66.     The  fat  hog  type.  ,  ,     ,          . 

hog,  each  has  been  bred 

to  serve  its  special  purpose.  The  intelligent  stockman 
can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  animal  he  is  looking  at 


124  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

with  the  thought  of  purchase  is  of  a  desirable  type,  whether 
it  will  command  a  high  place  in  the  market  for  value,  or  if 
its  merits  are  such  as  to  attract  no  speeial  interest.  The 
animals  which  most  nearly  represent  the  type  are  fewest  in 
numbers,  and  bring  the  highest  prices.  One  reason  why  we 
do  not  have  more  animals  of  the  better  kind  is  because 
farmers  and  stockmen  themselves  do  not  know  the  impor- 
tance of  type.  Before  one  is  capable  of  becoming  a  high- 
class  breeder  or  feeder  of  live  stock,  he  must  understand  this 
subject.  He  must  know  the  relation  of  animal  form  to  the 
purpose  it  will  best  serve. 

AMONG  OTHER  THINGS,  KEEP  IN  MIND 

1.  How  they  shipped  cattle  to  market  in  early  days. 

2.  The  reason  for  studying  animal  form. 

3.  The  meaning  of  the  word  "type." 

4.  The  type  of  a  draft  horse. 

5.  For  what*  coach  horses  are  especially  valued. 

6.  The  important  features  of  dairy  cattle  type. 

7.  The  contrast  in  lard  and  bacon  type. 

8.  The  meaning  of  commercial  classes  of  stock. 

9.  The  relative  importance  of  the  grades  of  stock. 

10.  The  relationship  of  form  to  purpose. 

SUPPOSE  YOU  MAKE  THESE  OBSERVATIONS 

11.  What  types  of  horses  do  you  find  on  the  streets  about  town? 

12.  Compare  the  horses  on  the  farm  with  which  you  are  best 
acquainted. 

13.  What  type  of  horse  is  most  in  demand  near  your  home? 

14.  Learn  if  horses  are  shipped  to  the  distant  markets  from  your 
locality,  the  prices  they  bring,  and  the  relation  of  type  to  value. 

15.  Which  is  the  more  popular,  beef  or  dairy  type  in  your  county, 
and  why? 

16.  Are  there  any  feeders  of  stock  within  your  acquaintance,  and 
if  so,  what  type  or  types  are  they  feeding? 

17.  Who   is   the   best   live-stock   dealer   with    whom    you    are 
acquainted,  and  why  is  he  the  best? 


CHAPTER  VII 
REASONS  AND  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK 

The  study  of  the  relationship  of  the  form  of  an  animal 
to  purpose  or  function,  is  a  most  important  duty  of  the 
live-stock  student  who  would  know  farm  animals.  The 
word  conformation  is  used  in  a  general  reference  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  parts  of  the  form  to  one  another.  When 
one  says  an  animal  has  a  good  conformation,  he  simply 
means  that  the  different  parts  are  well  balanced  and  in 
harmony  with  one  another.  Scientific  study  has  shown 
that  all  animals,  no  matter  how  odd  they  may  seem,  have 
conformations  best  suited  to  their  needs  and  conditions 
of  life.  The  giraffe,  with  excessively  long  neck,  feeds  on 
the  twigs  and  leaves  of  the  trees  overhead;  the  lion,  with 
cat-like  form,  slyly  creeps  up  and  springs  upon  its'  prey,  and 
tears  and  cuts  away  its  flesh  by  means  of  its  powerful  jaws 
and  teeth;  the  deer,  light  and  most  graceful  of  form,,  grazes 
on  the  grass  and  tender  twigs,  and  bounds  away  to  safety 
like  a  flash,  when  an  enemy  appears.  Form,  size  and 
color,  all  have  their  special  purposes.  Our  domestic  animals 
have  developed  under  artificial  conditions,  over  which  man 
has  had  large  control,  and  this  has  resulted  in  our  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  becoming  creatures  of  special  pur- 
pose to  a  very  unusual  degree.  The  great  speed  of  the 
Thoroughbred,  the  massive  size  of  the  Shire,  the  excessive 
milk  development  of  the  Holstein-Friesian,  and  the  heavy 
fleece  of  the  Merino,  are  all  fine  examples  of  this  special- 
purpose  development. 

The  most  efficient  judge  is  a  student  of  animal  form 
who  at  all  tipiea  :can  see  and  understand  clearly  this  re- 


126  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

lationship  of  form  to  purpose.  The  qualified  judge  ob- 
tains his  knowledge  in  two  ways:  first,  by  environment 
or  his  home  surroundings;  and  second,  by  education.  The 
average  English  farmer  is  a  great  lover  of  animals,  and  is 
usually  a  good  judge  of  a  beast,  and  his  children  inherit  the 
same  characteristics.  It  is  second  nature  for  him  to  meas- 
ure up  in  a  logical  way  the  weak  and  strong  points  in  an 
animal  and  judge  their  values.  Yet  one  may  become  a  cap- 
able, efficient  judge  by  combination  of  a  natural  admiration 
for  animals,  with  systematic  training  in  judging  conformation. 


Fig.  67.     Giraffes  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park.     Notice  one  in  the  door- 
way.    Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  judge  at  all  times  should  be  able  to  compare  the  animal 
before  him  with  what  he  knows  to  be  the  ideal  or  perfect 
one.  The  ability  to  compare  differs  in  degree.  Beginners 
are  not  supposed  to  be  as  proficient  as  experienced  men, 
yet  time  and  experience  add  to  one's  qualifications.  Even 
if  one  lacks  to  some  extent  the  desirable  qualities  to  be 
found  in  a  successful  judge,  he  yet  may  be  qualified  to  pass 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK  127 

in  judgment  on  many  occasions  where  the  responsibilities 
are  not  the  greatest. 

The  judgment  of  the  farmer  or  stockman  should  enable 
him  to  buy,  and  to  develop  his  own  herd  with  intelligence. 
No  man  is  qualified  to  manage  any  business  at  the  present 
day  who  does  not  know  the  difference  in  the  values  of  the 
goods  he  handles.  Then  why  should  not  the  man  who  owns 
stock  on  the  farm  be  capable  of  judging  relative  values  among 
his  animals?  A  large  number  of  herds  of  dairy  cattle  in  the 
United  States  have  been  shown  to  be  unprofitable.  This  is 
not  as  a  rule  due  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  food  given,  but 
rather  to  the  kind  of  animals  kept.  The  man  who  knows 
how  to  select  the  right  kind  of  dairy  cows  to  build  up  a  herd, 
will  find  his  knowledge  a  source  of  profit  rather  than  loss,  if 
he  makes  good  use  of  the  same.  Without  doubt,  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  dairy  cows  are  unprofitable  to  their  owners. 
This  in  itself  is  a  good  reason  why  one  should  study  the  rela- 
tion of  form  to  production. 

Some  animals  have  important  defects  that  will  be  noticed 
only  by  men  who  are  capable  judges.  The  man  who  knows 
nothing  of  a  horse  and  desires  to  purchase,  if  he  depends  on 
his  own  judgment,  is  liable  to  buy  something  he  does  not 
want.  A  side  bone  or  a  spavin  may  be  a  little  thing  to  see, 
but  its  presence  on  the  horse  is  a  distinct  imperfection,  as 
one  will  quickly  learn  if  he  tries  to  sell  such  an  animal.  A 
good  judge  will  discover  these  imperfections  and  let  another 
be  the  purchaser.  On  every  hand  men  who  have  given 
no  serious  study  to  qualify  themselves  for  this  work  are 
engaged  in  buying  live  stock. 

Some  experts  make  a  specialty  of  buying  immature  or 
green  animals  that  give  promise  of  great  development. 
Such  men  are  keen  students  of  animal  form.  It  is  not 
ciitficult  to  pass  on  the  merits  of  a  mature  horse  that  stands 


128  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

before  one  in  perfect  condition,  ready  for  the  show  ring.  It  is 
not  so  easy  a  matter,  however,  to  go  into  the  pasture  and 
select  the  best  prospect  from  a  bunch  of  thin  yearlings  that 
have  had  no  special  care  during  the  warm,  dry  summer 
days.  The  man  who  goes  to  the  stock-yards  to  buy  a  lot  of 
steers  for  feeding  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  dealers  there,  unless 
he  has  the  necessary  judgment,  not  only  to  know  what  kind 
of  cattle  he  wants,  but  how  to  sort  them  out.  The  ability 
to  select  wisely  the  green,  untrained  colt  or  promising 
heifer  has  enabled  more  than  one  man  to  find  what  we 
sometimes  call  "a  diamond  in  the  rough." 

The  greater  the  number  of  qualified  judges  in  a  com- 
munity, the  better  will  be  the  general  average  of  the  animals 
there,  and  the  more  valuable  from  a  commercial  standpoint. 
An  example  of  this  is  seen  in  England,  where  good  judges  of 
stock  are  comparatively  common.  It  is  interesting  to 
observe,  not  only  that  the  flocks  and  herds  of  that  country 
are  much  superior  to  those  of  any  other  country,  but  that 
the  people  of  the  rest  of  the  world  for  generations  have 
been  sending  their  gold  to  England  to  exchange  for  superior 
stock.  Most  of  our  improved  breeds  came  from  Great 
Britain,  and  we  sent  there  for  them  because  their  merit  was 
seen  and  appreciated.  Suppose  the  people  of  Minnesota, 
for  example,  were  to  give  special  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  their  live  stock,  and  the  study  of  animal  form  became 
popular,  what  would  result?  Would  there  not  be  a  great 
improvement  in  the  live  stock  of  the  state,  and  would  not  the 
wealth  of  Minnesota  be  thereby  greatly  increased?  It 
most  certainly  would. 

A  natural  interest  in  farm  animals  and  a  love  for  them 
are  also  good  reasons  for  making  a  careful  study  of  them. 
The  greater  the  intelligence  with  which  one  can  look  an 
animal  over,  the  more  pleasure  he  will  find  in  the  occupa- 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK  129 

tion.  No  business  that  offers  no  incentive  to  greater  effort 
profits  a  man  much.  The  production  of  beautiful  and  use- 
ful animals  can  not  but  bring  out  the  best  there  is  in  a  man's 
character;  while  at  the  same  time  he  is  rendering  a  service 
to  his  fellow  man  by  producing  something  that  adds  to  the 
wealth  of  the  community.  We  call  a  man  a  great  artist 
who  paints  on  canvas  a  beautiful  picture  of  a  magnificent 
horse,  but  what  shall  we  say  of  the  man  who  bred  and  raised 
this  horse  to  his  perfect  state?  Is  he  not  the  greater  artist 
of  the  two? 

The  use  of  the  scale  of  points,  or  score  card,  as  it  is  often 
called,  is  a  first  step  in  the  systematic  education  of  the  person 
who  desires  to  learn  how  to  judge  live  stock.  The  scale  of 
points  was  first  originated  in  1834,  on  the  Island  of  Jersey, 
as  has  been  stated  in  the  Jersey  section  of  the  chapter  on 
cattle.  Some  of  the  people  on  the  island  felt  that  something 
should  be  done  to  improve  their  cattle.  So  they  selected 
two  cows,  one  of  which  they  thought  had  the  nearest  perfect 
form  in  the  front  half  of  the  body,  while  the  other  was  con- 
sidered to  have  a  perfect  rear  half.  Then  they  placed  a 
numerical  value  on  each  of  these  best  halves  of  the  body,  using 
these  two  cows  to  furnish  a  standard  or  model  with  which 
to  judge  other  cows.  They  also  selected  two  bulls,  and  made 
a  score  card  for  the  males  by  the  same  process.  As  a  result 
of  this  unique  method,  "A  scale  of  points  for  Jersey  cows," 
as  it  was  called,  gave  the  cows  27  points;  and  another  scale 
gave  the  bulls,  and  the  heifers  not  in  milk,  25  points.  The 
people  on  Jersey  made  a  practical  application  of  the  use  of 
the  scale  by  comparing  their  cattle  with  these  standards. 
The  people  derived  much  benefit  from  this  method  of  judg- 
ing, and  their  cattle  were  gradually  improved.  They  revised 
this  scale  on  several  occasions,  and  among  other  things  finally 
adopted  a  uniform  standard  of  100  points  for  each  sex. 


130  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Since  that  time  score  cards  have  been  much  used  by  men 
interested  in  other  kinds  of  stock,  and  scales  of  points  have 
been  adopted  for  many  of  our  improved  breeds.  Not  only 
that,  but  score  cards  that  apply  only  to  types  of  stock,  such 
as  the  draft  horse,  etc.,  are  commonly  used  in  agricultural 
schools  and  colleges.  The  following  is  a  copy  of  a  score  card 
for  Dorset  Horn  sheep,  that  was  adopted  many  years  ago. 
It  is  given  here  on  account  of  its  concise  form  and  simplicity 
of  expression. 

THE  DORSET  HORN  SHEEP  SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Points  scored 

Perfect 
score 

Score 
of 
animal 

1.  GENERAL  APPEARANCE.     Head  well  up,  eyes  bright  and 
alert*  and  standing  square  on  legs   

20 

2.  HEAD.     Small,  face  white,  nostrils  well  expanded,  nose  and 
lips  pink  in  color  .                  

5 

3    HORN      Neat  curving  forward  and  light  in  color 

10 

4.  FORE  TOP.     Good,  and  well  covered  on  belly  and  legs.  .  .  . 
5.  NECK.     Short  and  round,  set  well  on  shoulders  
6    CHEST      Broad  full   brisket  well  forward 

10 
5 
10 

7    BACK      Broad,  straight,  with  well  sprung  ribs  

15 

8.  QUARTERS.     Heavy,  square,  set  on  short,  straight  legs,  well 
apart  

10 

9.  LEGS.     White,  with  small,  light  colored  hoof  
10.  WOOL.     Medium  quality  and  good  weight,  presenting  an 
even  smooth  white  surface      

5 
10 

Total  

100 

An  example  of  the  use  of  a  scale  of  points  is  necessary, 
and  this  of  the  Dorset  will  serve  our  purpose.  Under 
"Points  scored,"  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  ten  things  to 
which  attention  is  directed.  Each  of  these  ten  is  given  a 
brief  description  and  a  number,  which  represents  what  the 
stockman  calls  " points."  The  number  20  in  the  column 
named  "Perfect  score"  means  that  a  Dorset  sheep  that 
would  exactly  answer  to  the  description  of  general  appear- 
ance there  given  would  score  20,  or  would  be  perfect  in  this 
one  respect.  If  in  scoring  a  sheep  one  found  that  in  his 
opinion  each  part  was  perfect,  then  he  should  give  the  full 
value  in  the  blank  space  for  "score  of  animal."  In  such  a 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK  131 

case  the  sheep  would  score  100,  and  hence  by  the  scale  of 
points  would  be  perfect.  But  we  have  no  such  animal.  It 
is  rarely  that  one  will  score  90  points  or  above,  and  but  few 
grade  as  high  even  as  80.  Suppose  you  were  scoring  a  Dor- 
set ram.  As  you  examine  the  animal,  you  are  sure  to  find 
him  inferior  to  perfection  in  some  points.  He  may  carry 
his  head  perfectly,  the  eye  may  be  above  criticism,  but  you 
may  find  good  reason  to  criticise  the  way  he  stands  on  his 
feet.  He  may  not  be  bad  in  this  respect;  so  you  give  him 
17  points  for  general  appearance  instead  of  20.  Narrow 
chests  are  very  common,  and  our  Dorset  may  show  by  the 
close  way  his  front  legs  are  placed  together,  that  he  lacks  a 
broad,  full  chest;  so  after  consideration  you  give  him  7.5 
points  for  this  part,  which  you  think  is  all  the  -credit  he  should 
receive.  Thus  one  goes  through  the  list  of  points  and 
examines  the  animal  systematically  and  critically,  putting 
down  the  score  from  part  to  part,  finally  adding  the  column 
made,  and  so  getting  the  total  points  scored  for  comparison 
with  the  perfect  Dorset. 

The  value  of  the  score  card  lesson  is  seen  in  several  ways. 
It  trains  the  student  to  examine  the  animal  systematically, 
and  impresses  on  the  mind  the  things  that  should  be 
considered  in  studying  form  and  character.  Attention  is 
first  called  to  the  animal  as  a  whole,  when  character  is  con- 
sidered, as  it  can  be  studied  at  no  better  time,  and  then  the 
different  parts  in  proper  order  are  carefully  examined  and 
rated.  So  one  learns  to  make  first  a  general  examination, 
to  get  the  balance  of  parts,  the  breed  character,  the  size, 
quality,  and  condition,  and  thus  measure  up  the  entire  animal 
from  the  standpoint  of  appearance.  Then  comes  the  detailed 
study  of  the  head,  next  the  neck,  then  the  breast,  and  so  on. 
The  relationship  of  each  part  to  the  other  must  be  considered 
so  as  to  get  a  lair  idea  of  the  strong  and  weak  points  in  the 


132  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

conformation.  Thus  systematic  study  becomes  a  feature 
in  the  use  of  score  cards. 

The  relative  value  of  the  parts  is  also  shown  in  the  use 
of  the  score  card.  When  a  specimen  of  a  breed  is  being 
studied,  we  must  remember  that  we  are  using  a  scale  of 
points  that  has  probably  been  adopted,  after  much  careful 
study  and  comparison,  by  a  committee  of  experienced  men 
most  familiar  with  that  breed.  Thus  we  get  the  best  measure 
possible  of  this  breed,  and  in  the  scale  we  learn  what 
parts  are  most  highly  regarded,  and  which  least.  If  we 
are  using  a  score  card  such  as  relates  to  a  fat  hog,  where 
breed  is  not  considered,  such  as  is  in  common  use  in  the  ag- 
ricultural schools,  then  we  find  that  experts  have  made 
this  up  so  as  to  give  the  proper  values  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  body.  No  matter  what  kind  of  score  card 
we  are  using,  we  may  be  quite  sure  that  it  will  give  a  recog- 
nized place  and  value  to  each  part  or  group  of  parts.  The 
various  breeds  of  live  stock  of  much  the  same  type  have 
scales  of  points  that  place  similar  values  on  what  may  be 
called  their  most  important  characters.  For  example,  all 
the  dairy  cattle  score  cards  give  many  points  to  udder,  etc., 
while  those  of  beef  cattle  give  special  credit  for  breadth  and 
thickness  of  back. 

In  the  use  of  figures  in  scoring,  it  is  not  well  to  grade 
any  part  in  too  fine  a  degree.  Suppose  the  ear  is  given  one 
point.  When  so  small  a  number  is  used  to  indicate  per- 
fection, grades  of  .25  or  .50  or  .75  may  be  used  to  express  the 
score  for  that  part,  and  .25  of  one  per  cent  is  small  enough 
to  enable  one  to  express  reasonably  accurate  valuation  of  the 
ear.  In  any  event,  decimals  should  be  used,  and  the  person 
scoring  should  have  his  column  of  figures  properly  arranged, 
with  the  decimal  points  in  line.  When  common  fractions 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK  133 

are  used,  the  column  of  figures  do  not  stand  out  so  clearly 
in  contrast  as  when  decimal  fractions  are  used. 

The  number  of  points  cut  is  an  expression  sometimes  used 
when  referring  to  the  number  of  points  deducted  from  per- 
fection. If  a  part  in  the  perfect  score  is  credited  with  10, 
and  one  gives  the  animal  in  question  7  points,  then  we  say 
it  has  been  cut  3  points.  Some  young  judges  often  write 
the  3  on  the  card,  instead  of  the  7.  This  is  wrong.  The 
points  cut  should  not  be  written  down. 

The  value  of  the  score  of  an  animal  should  not  be  regarded 
too  highly.  The  chief  importance  of  the  score  card  lies  in 
the  first  lessons  in  judging,  in  which  the  different  parts  of  the 
animal,  their  location  and  relative  value  are  impressed  on  the 
mind.  However,  it  is  difficult  to  score  an  animal  satisfac- 
torily under  the  varying  conditions  of  living  flesh.  Today 
we  may  score  an  animal  75,  and  tomorrow  perhaps  71.  The 
horse  we  scored  yesterday  may  show  more  character  and 
style  today  than  he  did  24  hours  ago.  We  do  not  know  how 
to  express  in  cold  figures  these  things  we  see  in  the  beast 
before  us.  We  can  tell  what  we  see,  and  if  we  have  two  or 
more  animals  before  us  for  judgment,  it  may  be  an  easy 
thing  to  place  them  in  their  relative  order  of  merit,  and  with 
good  reasons.  Yet  these  reasons  can  not  be  so  clearly 
shown  by  a  column  of  figures  on  a  score  card.  On  various 
occasions  efforts  have  been  made  to  judge  animals  on  the 
basis  of  the  scale  of  points,  and  to  make  show-ring  awards 
accordingly.  This  plan  has  been  carefully  tried  by  many  of 
our  best  judges,  and  has  very  generally  proved  unsatis- 
factory, and  for  the  reason  given.  Today  the  scoring  method 
is  generally  discarded,  except  at  poultry  shows,  and  here  it 
has  given  such  dissatisfaction  that  it  has  been  abolished  in 
many  cases.  In  spite  of  this  criticism,  we  must  not  lose 


134  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

sight  of  the  value  of  the  scale  of  points  as  a  standard,  and 
what  it  may  teach. 

Judging  by  comparison  is  the  next  step  to  be  taken  after 
a  few  lessons  with  the  score  card.  This  means  keeping  in 
one's  mind  the  essential  features  of  the  scale  of  points,  and 
then  studying  one  or  more  animals  of  a  kind  and  placing 
mental  values  on  the  subject  or  subjects  examined.  A  per- 
son should  make  himself  familiar  with  the  different  types  or 
breeds  that  he  is  interested  in,  and  at  every  opportunity  give 
personal  study  to  individual  animals.  In  a  matter  of  com- 
parison, it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  important 
features  to  be  considered,  and  then  judge  the  animals  as  intelli- 
gently as  possible.  In  judging  by  comparison,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  line  up  the  horses  or  cattle  or  sheep  side  by  side,  so 
that  they  will  face  in  the  same  direction.  Hogs  are  usually 
examined  in  small  groups,  being  kept  together  with  the  help 
of  hurdles.*  The  front  feet  should  stand  slightly  higher 
than  the  hind  feet,  and  there  should  be  space  enough  for  the 
judge  to  pass  easily  between  the  animals  to  make  his  inspec- 
tion. The  center  of  an  open  space,  with  a  firm,  clean  floor, 
is  most  desirable. 

When  the  heads  are  lined  up,  the  other  parts  are  in  the 
best  positions  for  inspection.  The  judge  then  begins  his 
comparison,  first  walking  around  the  line  of  animals  and 
noting  from  different  points  of  view  the  general  comparison 
of  one  with  another.  The  judge  must  necessarily  place  first 
in  rank  the  animal  that  shows  the  most  breed  or  type  char- 
acter, that  has  the  most  complete  balance  of  parts,  the  most 
perfection  in  various  details,  and  the  least  number  of  faults. 
Emphasis,  however,  must  be  placed  on  the  special  purpose 
of  the  animal  under  consideration,  as  weight  in  heavy  draft 

*A  hurdle  is  similar  to  a  small  section  of  a  light  panel  fence.  Some  hurdles 
weigh  only  3  or  4  pounds  and  are  easily  handled.  Others  may  be  longer  and  heavier, 
requiring  two  men  to  handle. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


135 


horses,  udder  development  with  dairy  cows,  or  character 
of  fleece  with  Merino  sheep.  For  example,  most  of  the 
scales  of  points  of  the  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  devote  about 
J£  of  the  total  scale  emphasizing  the  size,  form,  etc.,  of 
the  udder,  teats,  milk  veins,  and  wells.  Such  special  fea- 
tures must  be  kept  in  mind. 

In  placing  the  animals,  it  becomes  a  question  of  prompt 
decision  in  sorting  out  and  getting  the  individuals  in  one, 
two,  three  order  of  relative  merit.  In  large  rings  at  live 


Fig.  68.     Students  judging  a  ring  of  horses  by  comparison. 

author. 


Photograph  by 


stock  shows,  judges  often  divide  the  animals  into  two  groups, 
those  that  they  consider  worthy  candidates  for  the  prize 
list,  and  those  that  are  not.  The  former  group  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  "the  short  leet,"  a  British  expression  for  the 
choicer  individuals.  After  the  short  leet  is  selected,  the 
other  group  is  usually  sent  to  the  stalls.  In  most  compara- 
tive rings,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  quickly  the  best  animal; 
but  as  one  deals  with  the  stock  farther  down  the  line, 


136  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

it  becomes  necessary  to  decide  on  the  relative  demerits' 
rather  than  the  merits  of  each,  and  to  place  highest  those 
that  show  the  fewest  undesirable  features,  a  matter  in  which 
judges  sometimes  differ  quite  a  bit.  Naturally  we  do  not 
all  see  things  alike;  and  so  the  judge  who  does  his  work  care- 
fully and  comes  to  a  decision  independently  of  the  views  of 
others,  is  assuming  his  responsibility  in  the  right  way. 

Keeping  notes  on  animals  under  comparison  is  a  very  good 
plan.  It  is  customary  in  classes  of  stock  judged  by  students, 
to  give  each  animal  a  number  or  letter.  These  marks  may 
be  written  on  common  gummed  paper  labels,  and  stuck  on 
the  rump.  Then  on  a  small  card  or  folded  slip  of  paper, 
one  may  give  space  to  each  animal  under  its  number,  and 
make  brief  notes  of  certain  features  of  importance.  These 
notes  are  often  instructive  and  suggestive,  and  aid  the  young 
judge  in  keeping  things  in  mind.  In  the  student's  judging 
contests  of  today,  the  boys  are  allowed  to  take  notes  in  this 
way,  and  use  them  for  reference  up  to  the  time  of  appearing 
before  the  judges  to  give  their  reasons. 

In  discussing  an  animal  being  judged,  it  is  desirable  to  do 
so  briefly  and  clearly,  emphasizing  the  important  things, 
such  as  character,  general  conformati6n,  quality,  back,  body 
capacity,  chest  development,  or  hind  quarters.  Much, 
of  course,  will  depend  on  the  special  case  in  hand.  Then 
if  one  is  describing  an  animal,  or  is  comparing  two  or  more, 
the  frequent  use  of  such  expressions  as  "he  has  a  good  back/' 
or  "she  has  the  best  quality,"  are  to  be  discouraged.  The 
words  good  or  best  in  these  cases  really  convey  no  specific 
information.  Instead,  if  one  says,  "He  has  a  long,  wide, 
muscular  back;"  or  "She  excels  the  other  in  quality,  as  seen 
in  a  fine,  silky  coat  of  hair  and  a  mellow,  elastic  skin,"  then 
the  reasons  given  will  be  clearer  and  convey  more  meaning 
than  simply  "good"  and  "best." 


THE  JUDGING  OF  LIVE  STOCK  137 

The  decision  of  the  judge  is  always  open  to  criticism. 
Being  only  human,  we  see  things  from  different  points  of 
view;  so  why  should  we  not  differ?  The  courts  do  not  all 
agree;  as  is  often  seen,  one  court  reversing  the  decision  of 
another.  Two  things,  however,  on  the  part  of  a  judge  are 
most  important,  one  is  honesty;  the  other  is  knowledge  of 
his  business.  If  one  has  these  qualifications,  and  then 
comes  to  his  decisions  with  independence,  regardless  of  what 
anyone  else  thinks,  his  work  as  a  judge  will  as  a  rule  be- satis- 
factory and  his  judgments  will  command  respect. 

BY  THE  WAY,  DO  YOU  RECALL 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  word  conformation? 

2.  Why  one  man  is  a  good  judge  and  another  is  not? 

3.  The  advantage  that  has  come  to  England  from  having  mary 
good  judges  of  live  stock? 

4.  The  condition  under  which  the  scale  of  points  originated? 

5.  The  general  application  of  the  scale  of  points? 

6.  How  figures  should  be  used  in  scoring? 

7.  The  chief  importance  of  the  score  card? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  judging  by  comparison? 

9.  What  to  emphasize  in  judging  dairy  cattle? 

10.  The  most  desirable  method  of  discussing  animal  form? 

11.  Some  desirable  qualifications  for  a  judge? 

WOULD  IT  NOT  INTEREST  YOU  TO  KNOW 

12.  Who  are  the  most  intelligent  judges  in  your  county? 

13.  Who  some  of  the  judges  were  at  your  State  Fair? 

14.  Who  judges  grade  and  cross-bred  fat  cattle  at  the  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition? 

15.  On  what  basis  men  are  selected  as  judges,  especially  at  county 
fairs? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 

The  exterior  parts  of  the  horse  are  referred  to  by  horse- 
men in  terms  not  familiar  to  all.  In  order  to  judge  intelli- 
gently and  to  use  the  score  card,  one  should  know  the  loca- 
tion and  importance  of  these  special  parts.  The  accompany- 
ing illustration  makes  the  location  of  many  of  these  clear. 
Without  going  into  too  much  detail,  the  following  is  given 
regarding  some  of  the  points  least  understood. 

The  ears  should  be  fine  and  not  large  for  the  animal,  and 
be  moderately  close  together.  They  should  be  carried  in  an 
alert,  pleasing  manner,  indicating  good  disposition. 

The  poll  is  the  top  of  the  skull  just  back  of  the  ears. 

The  forehead  is  the  space  below  the  ears  and  above  the 
eyes.  A  prominent  forehead  indicates  intelligence. 

The  cheek  is  the  large  flat  side  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  nose  is  the  more  prominent  part  between  eyes  and 
nostrils.  A  wide  nose  goes  with  full  breathing  capacity. 

The  muzzle  includes  the  nostrils  and  mouth.  Good 
feeders  and  animals  of  strong  constitution  usually  have 
comparatively  large  muzzles. 

The  lower  jaw  should  be  wide  and  strong.  A  narrow  jaw 
bespeaks  a  weak  conformation  and  inferior  feeding  character. 

The  crest  is  the  curved  line  of  the  neck  from  the  poll  to 
the  withers.  Males  should  show  some  crest,  but  on  the 
females  this  feature  is  not  prominent.  Stallions  frequently 
have  a  thick,  muscular  neck,  with  a  strong  crest.  This  is  a 
sign  of  masculinity,  and  is  objectionable  on  mares. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


139 


The  throat  latch  is  the  part  where  the  head  and  neck 
join  on  the  lower  side.  Fullness  and  heaviness  here  are 
objectionable,  indicating  lack  of  freedom  in  breathing. 

The  shoulders  extend  from  the  side  of  the  breast,  sloping 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  back.  The  upper  portion  of  the 


1.  Mouth. 

2.  Nostril. 

3.  Chin. 

4.  Nose. 

5.  Face. 

6.  Forehead. 

7.  Eye. 

8.  Ear. 

9.  Lower  jaw.' 

10.  Throat  latch. 

11.  Windpipe. 

12.  Crest. 

13.  Withers. 


Fig.  69.     THE  POINTS  OF  THE  H( 

14.  Shoulders. 

15.  Breast. 

16.  Arm. 

17.  Elbow. 

18.  Forearm. 

19.  Knee. 

20.  Cannon. 

21.  Fetlock  joint. 

22.  Pastern. 

23.  Foot. 

24.  Foreflank. 

25.  Heart  girth. 

26.  Coupling. 


27.  Back. 

28.  Loin. 

29.  Rear  flank. 

30.  Belly. 

31.  Hip. 

32.  Croup  or  rumj 

33.  Tail. 

34.  Buttocks. 

35.  Quarters. 

36.  Thigh. 

37.  Stifle 

38.  Gaskin. 

39.  Hock. 


140  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

shoulder  blade  is  wide  and  flat,  and  should  be  smoothly  laid 
into  the  body.  Muscles  are  attached  to  the  shoulder  blades 
•and  play  an  important  part  in  ease  of  motion.  A  long,  slop- 
ing, well  laid-in  shoulder  gives  the  easiest  and  fastest  motion. 

The  withers,  the  crested,  bony  prominence  between  the 
shoulder  tops,  is  the  name  given  to  the  spine  at  this  point. 

The  arm  is  the  wider,  more  muscular  part  just  below  the 
shoulder.  The  width  and  covering  of  muscle  indicate  its 
strength. 


Fig.  70.     The  position  of  the  -skeleton  of  the  horse  within  the  body.     Repro- 
duced from  "Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  forearm  lies  just  below  the  arm  and  extends  to  the 
knee,  and  should  be  long  and  broadly  muscular.  A  thin, 
narrow  forearm  is  a  weak  conformation. 

The  knee  should  be  broad  in  front,  straight  in  position 
as  viewed  from  in  front,  should  have  a  good  depth,  and  be 
well  supported  below. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  141 

The  cannon  bone  reaches  to  the  joint  above  the  foot,  and 
consists  of  a  round-fronted  bone,  with  two  small  bones  back 
of  it.  There  are  two  tendons  lying  directly  back  of  the  can- 
non bone.  The  correct  shape  for  the  cannon  bone  is  short 
and  somewhat  flat,  an  important  feature  of  a  strong  confor- 
mation. It  is  especially  desirable  that  the  bone  below  the 
knee  be  wide,  furnishing  a  strong  support  for  the  knee. 

The  fetlock  joint  connects  with  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  bone.  This  joint  should  be  straight,  deep  through, 
and  smooth. 

The  pastern  is  in  the  main  a  combination  of  two  short 
bones,  and  should  stand  at  an  incline,  because  it  plays  an 
important  part  in  breaking  the  concussion  which  takes  place 
when  the  horse  is  in  motion.  The  shorter  and  more  upright 
the  pastern  the  more  liable  is  the  horse  to  have  bone  diseases 
and  a  hard  gait.  Carriage  horses  should  have  the  pastern 
show  a  slope  of  about  45  degrees.  Drafters  are  usually 
steeper  of  pastern  than  the  light  horse.  The  pastern  is 
sometimes  too  long,  and  lacks  the  strength  to  support  the 
body  correctly. 

The  foot  consists  of  several  parts.  The  hoof  proper  is  a 
very  tough,  horny  bone,  and  in  form  should  be  rather  round, 
although  the  hind  foot  is  never  as  round  as  is  the  one  in 
front.  The  top  of  the  hoof  should  not  be  narrow  and  small, 
but  should  have  some  fullness  compared  with  the  lower  part. 
The  back  part  of  the  hoof  makes  a  sudden  turn  forward 
underneath,  forming  a  V-shaped  portion  known  as  the  frog. 
This  frog  is  somewhat  elastic,  and  acts  as  a  buffer  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  which  under  natural  conditions  it  should 
just  touch.  The  frog  should  never  be  pared  by  the  black- 
smith, excepting  to  remove  tag  ends  or  parts  grown  out  of 
shape.  A  good  frog  saves  the  foot  hard  punishment  on  the 
road.  The  sole  of  the  foot  is  the  part  between  the  outer 


142 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


wall  of  the  hoof  and  the  frog.  This  part  is  slightly  concave 
or  arched.  The  entire  back  part  of  the  hoof  is  called  the 
heel,  and  this  should  be  neither  low  nor  high,  having  only 

enough  height  above  the 
ground  to  give  the  foot 
strength  and  protection. 
The  heel  should  have 
about  the  same  slope  as 
the  front  part  of  the  hoof, 
which  is  about  45  to  50 
degrees.  The  hoof  should 
be  free  of  cracks  and  not 
be  brittle,  defects  that  are 
all  too  common.  Most 
people  prefer  a  dark-col- 
ored hoof,  believing  it 
tougher  and  less  liable  to 
break  than  a  white  one. 

The  heart  girth  or 
chest  is  the  circumference 
of  the  body  just  back  of 
the  shoulders.  A  deep, 
full  chest  indicates  vigor 


and  constitution.      A  de- 
Fig.  71.     THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE.  .  , 

1.  (a)  Nail  properly  driven;  (b)  improperly    prCSSlOn       back       OI         the 

2.  A  sovund  foot.  shoulders   shows    lack 

3.  A  section  across  2  at  X. 

4.  A  contracted  foot. 

4a.  A  section  across  6  at  X. 

5.  A  section  across  7  at  X. 

6.  A  sound  but  flat  hoof. 

7.  A  badly  contracted  foot. 
Reproduced  from  Special  Report  on  "Diseases 

of  the   Horse."      U.  S.    Dept.  of  Agriculture,    Straight     and     short, 
.Plate  34,  1890.  .1  *i  •  i    i 

the    ribs    widely   arched. 

A   considerable  depression  or  sag  of  the  back   is    a    sign 
of  weakness.     The  back  extends  from  the  lower  end  of  the 


of 

room  for  those  vital   or- 
gans, the  heart  and  lungs. 
The  back    should    be 
with 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  143 

withers  to  a  wide,   somewhat  level  part  called  the  loin. 

The  loin  is  the  broadest  and  flattest  part  of  the  back, 
and  lies  between  the  last  rib  and  the  point  of  the  hips.  The 
strength  of  back  lies  in  the  loin,  which  should  be  short,  wide, 
and  heavily  muscled.  A  long,  narrow  loin  is  a  sign  of  weak- 
ness and  inability  to  stand  up  under  severe  work. 

The  coupling  is  the  space  between  the  point  of  hip  and 
the  last  rib.  A  short  coupling  indicates  endurance. 

The  hip  is  seen  as  a  point  more  or  less  prominent  on  each 
side,  just  back  of  the  coupling.  The  hips  on  mature  females 
are  usually  more  prominent  than  on  the  males.  Symmetry 
of  form  calls  for  the  hip  to  be  nicely  laid  in,  with  a  smooth 
covering  of  flesh.  There  are  other  good  reasons  for  not 
having  a  wide  placing  of  the  points  of  the  hips,  which  need 
not  be  discussed  here. 

The  croup,  or  rump,  is  the  long,  muscular  development 
from  the  point  of  the  hips  to  the  setting  on  of  tail.  Great 
power  and  strength  exist  here,  and  so  it  is  important  that 
this  part  be  long,  wide,  and  fairly  level.  A  steep  rump  is 
unsightly,  and  a  narrow  one  has  less  muscle  than  a  wide  one 
equally  long.  Length  here  is  also  desirable  as  affecting 
speed. 

The  thigh  extends  from  the  rump  down  to  the  large  joint 
below,  known  as  the  hock.  This  part  should  be  very  mus- 
cular, and  wide  from  the  lower  side  of  the  croup  to  a  joint 
below  called  the  stifle.  The  upper  part  of  the  thigh  is  wide, 
while  the  lower  portion,  often  termed  the  gaskin,  is  long, 
narrow,  and  very  muscular.  From  the  point  of  the  hip  to 
the  hock  one  should  look  for  considerable  length. 

The  stifle  joint  is  located  in  the  front  part  of  the  thigh 
close  to  the  body.  This  is  comparable  to  the  knee  in  the 
human  skeleton.  Some  of  the  strongest  muscles  of  the  upper 
thigh  are  connected  with  this  joint  by  means  of  tendons. 


144  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  flanks  refer  to  the  parts  where  the  legs  join  with  the 
body.  The  front  flank  is  just  back  of  the  arm,  while  the  hind 
flank  is  the  high  part  of  the  side  above  and  beyond  the  stifle. 
A  low,  full  flank  goes  with  large  body  capacity  and  constitu- 
tional vigor.  Horses  high  in  the  flanks  usually  appear  long 
of  leg. 

The  hock  is  the  large  joint  about  half  way  down  the  hind 
leg.  This  is  a  very  important  part,  and  should  be  wide  in 
front,  deep  through  from  front  to  rear,  and  should  be  lean 
rather  than  fleshy.  Large,  heavy  horses  tend  to  have  what 
are  known  as  thick,  meaty  hocks.  There  are  small  bones  in 
this  joint,  and  they  are  most  important  in  reducing  the  con- 
cussion which  comes  from  the  severe  use  thrown  on  the  hind 
legs  when  in  action. 

The  general  features  of  the  cannon,  fetlock  joint,  pastern, 
and  foot  in  the  front  legs  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
behind.  However,  the  rear  cannon  bone  is  flatter  and  deeper 
from  front  to  rear,  and  usually  shows  somewhat  more  length. 
The  hind  pasterns  also  are  usually  less  sloping  than  those  in 
front. 

The  position  of  the  horse  at  rest  should  show  the  feet 
squarely  placed,  and  the  legs  as  perpendicular  as  possible,  as 
indicated  by  the  position  of  the  cannon  bones.  Horses' 
legs  may  take  a  variety  of  positions.  Sometimes  they  toe 
in,  or  perhaps  toe  out.  In  such  cases  the  legs  are  not  straight. 
If  the  hocks  nearly  touch,  then  the  hind  feet  usually  point 
out;  while  if  there  is  considerable  width  between  the  hocks, 
then  the  toes  point  in.  A  wide  or  bowed  hock  shows  a 
very  weak  conformation,  worse  than  one  that  is  too  close. 
Horsemen  prefer  the  hocks  to  come  close  together  rather 
than  to  be  spread  wide  apart,  for  the  closer  position  gives  a 
better  hock  action. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


145 


The  horse  at  the  walk  should  follow  a  straight  line  on 
being  led,  not  swinging  the  body  to  one  side.  The  feet 
should  be  raised  with  snap,  and  carried  forward  and  upward, 
and  the  knee  and  hock  flexed,  as  it  is  termed.  In  this  flexing 
movement,  the  foot  describes  a  half  circle  before  it  strikes 
the  ground.  Heavy  horses  tend  to  swing  the  feet  to  one 
side,  or  paddle  or  wing,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  When 


Fig.  72.     A  good    attitude,   and   correct  position  of  legs.     Photograph  by 
courtesy   The  Farmer. 

the  feet  in  motion  come  too  close  together,  the  horse  is  said 
to  "  interfere,"  that  is,  the  hoof  of  one  foot  will  strike  the 
ankle  of  another  and  may  cause  lameness.  As  the  foot  is 
raised,  a  person  standing  behind  a  horse  in  motion  should  be 
able  to  see  the  glisten  of  the  shoe  and  note  the  carriage  of  the 
foot. 
10—, 


146  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  movement  of  the  feet  in  the  trot  is  such  that  diago- 
nally opposite  ones  are  moved  in  the  same  direction;  that  is, 
the  front  right  and  left  hind  feet  move  forward  together. 
The  trot  is  known  as  a  diagonal  gait. 

The  movement  of  the  feet  in  the  pace  shows  the  two  legs 
on  one  side  of  the  body  in  like  motion  at  the  same  time.  The 
pace  is  a  side  gait,  and  pacing  horses  are  sometimes  called 
"side-wheelers." 

The  action  of  the  horse  is  highly  valued.  A  heavy  draft 
horse  that  has  a  rapid  and  true  walk  will  accomplish  much 
more  work  than  will  the  horse  of  slow  movement.  A  fast 
trot  is  not  necessary  with  the  heavy  horse;  but  when  moving 
faster  than  a  walk,  a  horse  should  carry  his  legs  with  spirit 
and  ease.  A  premium  is  always  placed  on  the  action  of  the 
carriage  horse  for  the  city  coach  trade,  high  knee  and  hock 
action  being  especially  valued.  The  roadster  or  trotter  of 
first  class  must  have  a  long,  active,  true  stride,  such  as  always 
goes  with  superior  speed. 

Quality  in  the  horse  is  shown  in  the  hair,  the  skin  and 
bone,  and  in  the  general  appearance.  A  fine,  silky  coat  of 
hair;  a  thin,  mellow  skin;  and  fineness  of  bone,  are  features 
that  show  refinement,  or  quality.  Coarseness  of  head; 
large  ears  for  the  size  of  the  body;  wiry,  heavy  hair;  and 
coarseness  of  bone,  indicate  lack  of  endurance  and  weakness 
of  constitution.  A  large,  coarse  bone  is  more  porous  and 
less  strong  in  proportion  than  one  that  is  finer  and  smaller 
Fineness  and  softness  of  skin  is  an  indication  of  good  secre- 
tions and  healthy  internal  organs.  If  ample  quality  occurs, 
we  get  the  most  durability  and  stamina,  or  power  of  endur- 
ance. 

The  disposition  of  the  horse  is  usually  seen  in  the  promi- 
nence and  character  of  the  eye  and  the  carriage  of  the  ears. 
If  the  eye  is  prominent  and  the  whites  clear,  and  the  expres- 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


147 


sion  pleasant,  the  disposition  will  probably  be  good.  A 
small,  sunken  eye  indicates  a  bad  temper.  Ears  that  are 
carried  erect  or  that  point  forward  rather  than  backward 
show  a  good  temper.  If  the  ears  lop  about,  there  is  evidence 
of  laziness. 

The  height  of  the  horse  is  usually  expressed  in  "hands," 
a  hand  being  equal  to  4  inches.  The  height  is  measured  in 
a  vertical  line  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  withers. 
A  horse  16  hands  high  would  stand  64  inches  from  the  ground. 
The  weight  of  the  horse,  in  a  degree,  indicates  to  what 
class  he  belongs.  A  mature  horse  weighing  2000  pounds 
would  naturally  be  a  heavy 
draft  animal.  If  weighing  1000 
pounds,  it  might  be  one  of  sev- 
eral types.  In  Europe,  the 
height  of  the  horse  rather  than 
his  weight  is  looked  upon  as  of 
the  most  importance. 

The  age  of  the  horse  is  esti- 
mated   by    an    examination    of 
the  teeth.     It  requires  some  ex- 
perience to  be  quick  in  recognizing  the  age,  which  may  be 
determined  with  fair  accuracy  up   to   eight  years,  after 

which  it  becomes  a  matter  of 
guess  work.  The  following  items 
are  the  important  guides  to  age. 
The  colt's  teeth.  Seven  or 
eight  days  after  birth,  two  in- 
cisor teeth  appear  at  the  front 
and  middle  of  both  upper  and 
lower  jaws.  In  the  course  of 
five  or  six  weeks,  two  more  teeth  appear  in  each  jaw,  one 
tooth  coming  in  on  either  side  of  the  two  already  present. 


Fig.  73.  Age  of  the  horse  as 
shown  by  the  teeth.  1^  years 
old.  Figs.  73-80  reproduced  from 
"  Beurtheilungslehre  des  Pferdea," 
1859. 


Fig.  74.     2^3  years  of  age. 


148 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  75.     3M  years  old. 


Some  time  between  the  sixth 
and  ninth  month,  two  more  ap- 
pear, one  by  the  side  of  each 
outer  tooth.  These  six  pairs  are 
called  nippers.  They  are  the 
milk  teeth,  and  are  only  tem- 
porary. They  are  not  all  equally 


level  with  one  another  at  first,  but    in   the  course  of  12 
months  or  so  they  become  uniform  on  the  surface.    The 
outside  of  the  tooth  is  a  very  hard,  white  enamel.    This 
covers   a  hard,  ivory-like  bone, 
while  at   the   center   is   a   soft, 
bony    substance     which     more 
easily  wears  away,   but  is  con- 
stantly renewed.      The  ends  of 
the  teeth  have  a  ridged  cutting 
surface,  forming  at  the  centers 
small    depressions,    or    "cups," 
marks  by  which  the  age  is  deter- 
mined.   The  cups  in  the  central 
pair    of    nippers    at    first    are 
dark  of    center;   in  the  second 

year   they  begin   to   wear  light  in  color,  and  these  cups 
become    smaller   than   those  of   the  other   four.     Similar 

changes  follow  in  order  in  the 
other  pairs. 

At  three  years  of  age,  per- 
manent incisors  or  nippers  be- 
gin to  appear.  These  teeth  are 
larger  than  the  first  ones,  which 
were  small  but  suited  to  the 
mouth  of  the  colt.  The  first  or 

Fig.  77.     5  years  old. 


Fig.  76.     4  years  old. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


149 


central  pair  of  temporary  teeth 
is  pushed  out  or  aside  by  a  pair 
of  larger,  permanent  ones. 

At  four  years,  the  second 
pair  of  nippers  in  each  jaw  of 
the  colt  gives  way  to  two  larger, 
permanent  teeth. 

At  five  years,  the  last  pair  of 
colt's  teeth  in  each  jaw  is  re- 
placed by  permanent  teeth. 


Fig.  78.     6  years  old. 

At  this  age,  what  are  called 


tusks  appear  in  the  mouth  of  the  male.    These  teeth  have 
roundish  points,  and  there  are  two  in  each  jaw,  one  on  a 

side,  a  short  distance  back  of 
the  front  teeth.  After  the  fifth 
year  the  age  of  the  horse  is  de- 
termined by  the  appearance  of 
the  wearing  surface  of  the  teeth, 
each  tooth  having  its  age  sur- 
face. 

At  six  years,  the  cups  of  the 
Fig.  79.    7  years  old.  two  central  teeth  are  worn  off. 

At  seven,  the  second  pair  shows  the  worn  surface;   and 
At  eight,  all  the  teeth  have  been  worn  about  level,  and 
the  mouth  mark  loses  its  value. 
The  six  permanent  teeth  in 
each  jaw  at  first  meet  each  other 
in  much  the  same  position,   the 
ends  of   the    teeth   coming  full 
head  on.     As  age  increases,  the 
teeth  gradually  take  a  more  in- 
clined or  slanting-out  position  in 
each  jaw,  so  that  they  come  to- 
gether at  a  sharper  angle.      The 


Fig.  80.     8  years  old. 


150  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

older  teeth  are  also  more  worn  off  at  the  surface,  and  are 
longer  than  the  younger  teeth.  In  horses  from  12  to  16 
years  of  age,  the  ends  of  the  teeth  become  somewhat  three- 
sided.  The  following  unique  poem  may  assist  some  in 
keeping  clear  in  mind  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
mouth,  by  which  the  age  of  the  horse  may  be  decided. 

THE  AGE  OF  THE  HORSE  IN  VERSE.* 

Two  middle  nippers  you  behold 
Before  the  colt  is  two  weeks  old; 
Before  eight  weeks  two  more  will  come; 
Eight  months,  the  "  corners "  cut  the  gum. 

The  outside  grooves  will  disappear 
From  middle  two  in  just  one  year; 
In  two  years,  from  the  second  pair; 
In  three,  the  "  corners,"  too,  are  bare. 

At  two,  the  middle  nippers  drop; 
At  three,  the  second  pair  can't  stop; 
When  four  years  old  the  third  pair  goes; 
At  five,  a  full  new  set  he  shows. 

The  deep  black  spots  will  pass  from  view, 
At  six  years,  from  the  middle  two; 
The  second  pair  at  seven  years; 
At  eight,  the  spots  each  " corner"  clears. 

From  middle  nippers,  upper  jaw, 
At  nine  the  black  spots  will  withdraw; 
The  second  pair  at  ten  are  white; 
Eleven  finds  the  " corners"  light. 

*Biggle's  Horse  Book,  1894,  p.  115. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  151 

As  time  goes  on  the  horsemen  know 
The  oval  teeth  three-sided  grow; 
They  longer  get,  project  before 
Till  twenty,  when  we  know  no  more. 

The  soundness  of  the  horse  is  regarded  as  very  important. 
Many  unsound  horses  are  bought  by  men  who  think  them 
sound.  Then  when  these  men  attempt  to  sell,  these  horses 
often  show  a  great  loss  on  the  purchase  price.  Therefore,  if 
one  is  to  be  a  capable  judge,  he  must  be  able  to  distinguish 
cases  of  unsoundness.  This  is  not  always  easily  done. 
Some  forms  are  not  clearly  apparent  until  well  established. 
If  the  respiration  is  not  good,  this  is  brought  out  in  some  form 
of  work,  such  as  trotting,  hauling  a  load,  etc.  In  the  sale 
markets,  horses  are  hitched  to  wagons  with  brakes,  so  that 
they  may  be  required  to  make  quite  an  exertion  in  moving 
along. 

Heaves  is  an  unsoundness  or  trouble  of  the  lungs  which  is 
brought  on  through  dusty  feed,  bad  ventilation,  or  indiges- 
tion. Broken  wind  or  asthma  is  apparently  much  the  same 
thing.  When  the  horse  expels  wind  from  the  chest,  he  lacks 
the  muscular  contraction  of  the  lungs  that  attains  with  the 
sound  animal,  and  makes  a  wheezing  noise,  which  is  some- 
times very  loud. 

Roaring  is  another  disease  in  which  the  horse  makes  a 
loud  noise  during  breathing.  The  larynx  is  affected,  but 
not  the  lungs.  This  is  a  paralysis  of  the  nerves  and  muscles 
of  the  parts,  which  results  in  the  noise  in  breathing.  Roar- 
ing is  manifested  during  exertion,  yet  a  horse  may  be  a 
roarer  and  be  driven  some  distance  without  making  much  if 
any  noise.  The  disease  is  one  of  progression,  and  gradually 
becomes  worse.  Roaring  has  always  been  considered  incur- 
able until  recently.  Dr.  Williams  of  Cornell  University 


152 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  81.  The  upper  pic- 
ture shows  a  sound  hock 
joint;  the  lower,  one  with  a 
spavin.  Reproduced  from 
"Diseases  of  the  Horse," 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


discovered  a  method  of  operating  by 
which  the  roaring  may  be  cured,  and 
what  is  known  as  the  Williams'  opera- 
tion is  now  performed  with  success  in 
America  and  Europe. 

Spavin,  also  frequently  called  bone 
spavin,  is  usually  found  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  hock  joint,  on  the  inside  of 
the  leg.  It  is  caused  by  a  strain  or 
injury,  and  consists  of  an  accumulation 
of  bony  matter  at  the  joint.  This  is 
shown  in  a  more  or  less  thickening  of 
the  part,  as  compared  with  the  sound 
hock.  The  occurrence  of  the  spavin 
is  most  easily  seen  by  standing  directly 
back  of  the  horse  and  viewing  the  parts 
from  the  rear.  The  spavin  causes  lame- 
ness and  a  stiff  gait,  and  is  regarded  as 
a  serious  unsoundness.  It  greatly  dam- 
ages the  sale  value  and  is  more  com- 
mon on  light  than  on  heavy  horses. 

Curb  is  also  an  unsoundness  of  the 
hock.  When  sound,  the  back  of  the 
hock,  slightly  below  the  point,  has  rather 
a  perpendicular  or  straight  edge.  If  a 
curb  exists,  there  is  a  bulging  or  out- 
ward curve  a  short  distance  below  the 
point,  that  may  be  seen  by  standing 
opposite  the  hind  leg.  Hocks  that  do 
not  have  curbs,  yet  that  tend  to  round 
out  at  this  part  of  the  leg,  are  said 
to  have  a  curby  conformation.  Curbs 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


153 


are  due  to  strains,  and  while  an  unsoundness,  are  not  of 
the  more  serious  kind. 

Bog  spavin  is  a  small,  round  form  of  tumor,  located 
in  the  front  and  inner  side  of  the  hock.  If  pressed,  it  may 
appear  on  the  outside  and  rear  part  of  the  hock. 

Thoroughpin  is  a  swelling  in  the  rear  part  of  the  hock 
at  its  thinnest  point.  Here, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  the 
hock  is  curved  to  form  grace- 
ful outlines  with  a  pronounced 
depression.  If  thoroughpin 
occurs,  a  swelling  will  be  no- 
ticeable on  each  side  of  the 
hock  at  this  point.  Bog  spav- 
ins, thoroughpins,  or  a  puffed 
condition  about  the  hocks,  are 
seen  most  frequently  on  large, 
heavy  horses  that  have  what 
are  called  thick,  meaty  hocks. 
Horse  dealers  are  inclined  to 
refer  to  these  as  little  puffs 
that  will  disappear  with  work, 
and  so  minimize  their  import- 
ance. It  is  true  that  heavy 
horses  that  stand  in  the  stable, 
frequently  swell  in  the  lower 
half  of  the  legs,  a  condition  that  exercise  removes,  but  bogs 
and  thoroughpins  are  distinct  unsoundnesses  that  exercise 
will  not  drive  away,  and  that  injure  the  sale  value  of  the 
horse. 

Sidebone  is  found  in  the  rear  part  of  the  front  foot  on 
the  coffin  bone  at  the  crown  or  top  of  the  hoof.  It  is  due 
to  the  hardening  of  cartilages,  whereby  they  take  on  a  bony 


Fig.  82.  The  hock  from  one  side, 
showing  bog  spavin  in  front  and  curb 
behind.  Reproduced  from  "  The  Dis- 
eases of  the  Horse,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


154  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

character,  which  causes  lameness.    In  well-defined  cases, 
the  sidebones  appear  as  hard  projections  just  beneath  the 
skin,  and  can  be  plainly  seen  or  felt.    In  their  early  stages, 
sidebones  are  not  so  easily  discovered,  and  one  may  buy  a 
horse  that  appears  sound,  yet  in  a  short  time  the  trouble  will 

become  noticeable.    Sidebones 
are  most  common   on   draft 
horses,  and  on  those  used  on 
hard    roads    or     pavements. 
This  unsoundness  is  severely 
discriminated    against    and 
_________  shrewd    men    will    not    buy 

u  Fig.  83.    sidebone  shown  at  A  on  horses  that  have  sidebones. 

bone  in  the  foot  of  a  horse.     Repro-  T»'          t.  •  i 

duced  from   "Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  -King    D0n6    IS    E     DOnV    UC- 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  . ,        ,  .    ,      .        , , 

posit  which  in  the  form  of  a 

ring  encircles  the  upper  part  of  the  foot  or  the  pastern.  On 
old  horses  this  bony  enlargement  sometimes  becomes  very 
conspicuous.  It  may  be  due  to  hard  labor,  strains,  bruises, 
etc.,  and  if  well  developed,  causes  serious  lameness. 


hnotFnf '  84<  •  Rinfg  b°ne  above  foot>  as  indicated,  and  spavin  at  lower  part  of 
Station       P  arrOW'     ReProduced  from  Circular  29,  Purdue  Experiment 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  155 

Splint  is  a  bony  projection  or  roughness  usually  found 
on  the  inside  of  the  splint  bone,  which  lies  close  in  with  the 
cannon  bone  of  the  front  leg,  and  is  commonly  regarded  as 
the  cannon.  This  is  not  considered  a  distinct  unsoundness, 
although  very  common  and  referred  to  quite  frequently. 
Splints  sometimes  appear  on  young  horses  and  then  disappear 
with  the  mature  development  of  the  animals.  Splints  may 
be  easily  seen  while  standing  in  front  and  looking  at  the  inside 
of  the  legs. 

Quarter-crack  is  a  splitting  or  cracking  of  the  bony 
part  of  the  hoof,  usually  of  the  front  foot.  This  crack  may 
extend  the  entire  length  of 
the  hoof,  and  be  so  bad  as  to 
require  fastening  the  parts 
with  metal  clamps  or  nails  to 
keep  the  cracks  from  extend- 
ing or  widening.  Horses  with 
brittle  or  soft  hoofs  are  most 
affected  with  this  trouble. 
Quarter-crack  may  develop  so 

Fig.  85.     Quarter      crack.     Repro- 

far    aS    tO    break    through    the      duced  from  "  Diseases  of  the  Horse," 
<  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

lower   part  of  the  foot   and 

cause   serious   injury   and   lameness. 

Toe-crack  is  similar  to  quarter-crack,  but  is  usually  on 
the  hind  foot,  in  the  front  part,  and  often  extends  the  length 
of  the  hoof. 

Founder,  or  laminitis,  as  the  veterinarian  calls  it,  is  an 
unsoundness  of  the  feet.  It  is  due  to  an  inflammation  of  the 
delicate  tissues  within  the  hoof,  and  is  usually  found  in  the 
front  feet.  It  is  caused  by  a  variety  of  conditions,  such  as 
overwork,  overfeeding,  exposure,  etc.  If  well  established  it 
is  incurable  and  causes  the  horse  much  suffering.  The 
common  symptom  of  this  trouble  is  lameness,  which  is 


156  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

often  very  severe.  When  standing,  the  horse  as  a  rule 
reaches  the  feet  somewhat  forward,  resting  the  weight  upon 
the  heel.  The  hind  feet,  which  carry  most  of  the  weight, 
are  placed  well  under  the  body.  The  more  perfect  the 
foot,  the  less  liable  the  horse  is  to  suffer  from  founder. 
A  very  flat  foot,  or  one  with  very  high  hoof  walls,  or  a 
foot  that  is  quite  contracted,  is  liable  to  be  affected  with 
this  trouble. 

Navicular  disease  is  an  inflammation  that  also  occurs 
in  the  foot,  affecting  the  sesamoid  sheath  and  the  navicular 
bone.  This  occurs  most  commonly  with  race  horses,  and 
those  having  great  knee  action.  Usually  but  one  forefoot 
suffers  from  the  disease,  which  is  caused  by  concussion  and 
shock  to  the  affected  parts.  The  early  stages  of  the  disease 
are  not  commonly  noticed.  Attention  is  first  directed  to 
the  "pointing"  of  the  foot,  which  is  extended  forward,  the 
weight  resting  on  the  toe,  and  as  the  trouble  develops,  lame- 
ness is  noticed,  which  increases  with  use  of  the  horse. 
But  few  cases  of  navicular  disease  recover. 

Cocked  ankle,  or  knuckling,  is  a  partial  dislocation  of 
the  pastern  or  fetlock  joint,  in  which  case  the  pastern  becomes 
more  perpendicular  than  usual,  throwing  the  joint  forward 
out  of  natural  position.  This  is  not  always  an  unsoundness, 
but  is  a  defect,  in  that  it  causes  stumbling  and  clumsy  action. 

There  are  some  other  forms  of  unsoundness  that 
are  not  especially  common.  There  are  also  some  diseases 
that  become  chronic  as  external  features,  such  as  fistula  and 
poll  evil.  These  two 'are  manifested  by  swellings  and  finally 
running  sores  at  the  withers  or  poll,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
unsoundnesses  described,  however,  are  those  of  common 
occurrence,  and  are  most  likely  to  attract  attention. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  157 

IN  DISCUSSING  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 

1.  Where  is  the  muzzle,  and  why  should  it  be  of  good  size? 

2.  What  kind  of  shoulder  is  most  desirable? 

3.  Locate  and  describe  the  cannon  bone. 

4.  Explain  why  the  pastern  should  be  sloping. 

5.  Describe  the  frog  and  its  use. 

6.  Discuss  good  and  bad  croup  conformation. 

7.  Locate  the  hock,  and  discuss  its  form. 

8.  Explain  the  movement  of  the  leg. 

9.  Discuss  differences  of  action  of  coach  horse  and  roadster. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  a  "hand?" 

11.  Explain  the  meaning  of  milk  teeth,  and  their  occurrence. 

12.  What  are  the  cups? 

A  FEW  OBSERVATIONS  WORTH  MAKING 

13.  Compare  "points"  on  the  home  farm  horses. 

14.  Compare  horses  on  the  town  streets. 

15.  Examine  feet  when  at  rest. 

16.  Observe  movements  of  the  feet  of  horses  driven  on  the  road. 

17.  Inquire  of  blacksmiths  if  they  shoe  to  affect  the  action. 

18.  Examine  the  teeth  of  colts  and  older  horses,  and  obtain  practice 
in  judging  age. 


CHAPTER  IX 
JUDGING  THE  -HORSE 

The  judging  of  carriage  or  light  harness  horses  is  done 
on  the  basis  that  they  are  valued  for  speed  and  the  drawing 
of  carriages  and  lighter  vehicles.  As  stated  in  Chapter  VI, 
this  type  of  horse  is  comparatively  light  of  weight,  is  long 
and  narrow  rather  than  short  and  thick,  yet  has  a  muscular 
appearance.  In  this  class  we  find  somewhat  striking  dif- 
ferences in  type,  as  is  seen  by  comparing  a  high-class  Hackney 


Fig.  86.     A  saddle  horse  type. 

Missouri.     Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 


Rex  Chief  A.     Owned  by  Thomas  Bass,  of 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE  159 

with  a  light  type  of  trotter.  The  American  Saddle  horse  is 
also  in  this  class,  for  he  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of 
form  of  the  carriage  horse.  In  order  to  cause  no  confusion, 
a  score  card  for  carriage  horses  is  given  on  page  160.  There 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  most  communities  in  finding  horses 
of  this  type  which  may  be  used  for  score-card  practice.  Tb's 
score  card  is  the  style  commonly  in  use,  containing  a  blanK 
column  in  which  the  student  as  judge  may  write  his  own 
score,  with  another  column  in  which  the  score  of  the 
instructor  may  be  written  for  comparison. 

The  height  of  the  carriage  horse  may  vary,  but  16 
hands  is  a  good  standard,  with  1100  to  1200  pounds  for 
weight. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  carriage  horse  can  best 
be  studied  by  standing  off  some  distance,  such  as  ten  feet 
or  more,  and  making  an  inspection  which  will  take  in  the 
entire  form,  the  quality,  and  disposition.  One  should  not  be 
too  close  to  the  animal  for  this  first  examination.  At  a 
distance  one  also  gets  an  impression  of  character,  as  shown 
by  the  head  and  neck,  that  cannot  be  so  easily  noticed 
otherwise. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  carriage  horse  should  show 
plenty  of  intelligence,  style,  and  alertness.  Refinement  of 
head  and  ears  is  important,  and  the  neck  should  have  length 
and  not  be  coarse.  A  straight  line  along  the  top  of  the  neck, 
or  a  slight  crest  with  the  males,  is  looked  upon  with  favor. 
A  thin,  ewe  neck,  one  that  is  depressed  on  top,  is  undesirable, 
and  is  unpopular  among  buyers. 

The  fore  quarters  of  the  carriage  horse  should  show  a 
smooth,  well  laid-in,  yet  muscular  shoulder.  While  great 
strength  is  not  essential,  a  wide,  strong,  muscular  arm,  and 
long,  wide-topped  forearm  are  favored.  What  is  called  a 
clean,  smooth,  flat  bone  is  a  very  important  feature.  Clean- 


160 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


CARRIAGE  HORSE  SCORE  CARD 


Scale  of  Points. 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 
score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

NOTE  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT 

FORM,  long,  deep  chested,  muscular 

QUALITY,  neat,  lean  head;  fine  hair;  mellow  skin;  clean 

bone  and  joints;  disposition  active  and  pleasant .  . 
HEAD  AND  NECK: 

HEAP,  well  defined;  forehead  broad;  eyes  bright  and 

prominent;  muzzle  fine,  with  large  nostrils  and 

thin  lips;  ears  of  medium  size,  and  alert 

NecK,  somewhat,  long  and  refined 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS,  long,  smooth  and  oblique 

ARMS,  short  and  muscular;  forearm  long 

KNEES,  wide  in  front,  straight,  and  deep  through 

CANNONS,  short,  flat,  strong 

FETLOCKS,    wide,    and    pasterns   strong,    oblique    45 

degrees 

FEET,  medium  size,  slope  like  pastern;  horn  dense; 

frog  large;  heel  wide 

LEGS,  properly  placed,  and  not  too  close  together. .  .  . 
BODY: 

WITHERS,  muscular  and  well  set  back 

CHEST,  deep,  girth  large •.••••: 

BACK,  strong,  short,  muscular,    well  carried;  ribs  long 

and  arched;  loin  short  and  broad 

UNDERLINE,  long,  well  down  in  the  flank 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

HIPS,  smooth,  fairly  wide  apart 

CROUP,  long,  level  and  muscular,  broad,  tail  attachec 

high 

THIGHS,   long,   muscular,   quarters   strongly   muscled 

and  lower  thighs  long  and  strong 

HOCKS,  wide,  deep,  straight,  clean  cut 

CANNONS,  short,  wide,  strong,  clean 

FETLOCKS,     straight    and     wide,     pasterns     oblique 

strong 

FEET,    medium  size,  slope  like  pasterns;  horn  dense 

frog  large ;  heel  wide 

LEGS,  properly  placed  for  rapid  speed,  not  too  close 

together 

ACTION: 

WALK,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

TROT,  rapid,  straight,  with  long  stride 


Total  score. 


100 


NAME  OF  ANIMAL BREEd AGE 

OWNER 

ICORED  BT ..DATE.. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE  161 

ess  and  lightness  of  limb  are  much  valued  by  buyers  of  this 
class  of  horses.  Strength  and  quality  go  with  legs  of  this 
kind. 

The  body  of  the  carriage  horse  will  appear  deep  but  not 
thick,  and  will  at  its  best  have  a  sleek,  well-rounded  appear- 
ance. By  standing  off  at  one  side,  the  judge  will  get  a  better 
view  of  proportions,  and  the  fullness  of  chest,  and  depth  of 
both  front  and  hind  flanks  will  be  easily  seen.  A  view  from 
squarely  in  front  will  show  the  prominence  of  breast,  and  the 
thickness  and  depth  of  body  below  the  placing  of  neck, 
which  should  be  smoothly  blended  into  the  body.  There 
is  quite  a  good  deal  of  variation  in  the  withers  of  driving 
horses.  They  should  not  be  very  sharp,  but  fairly  well 
muscled  and  not  appear  too  prominent.  Notice  if  the  back 
is  strong  and  well  carried,  with  the  loins  broad  and  not  much 
depressed  below  the  level  of  the  croup.  The  well-turned 
carriage  horse  will  show  a  fullness  of  body  from  various 
points  of  view.  The  greater  speed  he  is  capable  of  making, 
the  more  muscular  and  angular  he  will  appear.  This  is 
illustrated  by  comparing  a  carriage  horse  and  a  working 
trotter,  each  being  about  the  same  size,  but  used  for  a  dif- 
ferent purpose. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  carriage  horse  show  power. 
As  one  stands  at  one  side,  the  length  of  croup  and  its  posi- 
tion are  easily  seen.  A  long,  strong,  high  rather  than  low 
croup  is  desired,  with  the  tail  having  a  free,  easy,  and  some- 
what high  carriage.  The  length  from  the  hips  to  the  point 
of  the  hocks  should  be  considerable. 

The  distance  from  the  hind  flank  diagonally  across  to  the 
setting  on  of  the  tail  also  should  be  comparatively  long.  As 
one  stands  behind,  he  should  be  able  to  observe  some  thick- 
ness below  the  tail,  where  the  hind  legs  merge  together  into 
the  thick,  muscular  quarters.  A  driving  horse  is  not  likely 


162  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

to  be  too  thick  in  the  quarters.  As  one  views  the  horse  from 
behind,  the  legs  should  reach  back,  with  the  hocks  separated 
about  four  inches,  and  the  lower  thighs  showing  a  strong 
muscular  development  from  both  rear  and  side  views.  At 
the  stifle  joint,  where  the  upper  and  lower  thigh  connect, 
fullness  rather  than  depression  should  occur.  The  hocks 
should  be  inspected  from  the  front,  at  one  side,  and  from 
behind.  It  is  important  that  they  be  clean,  well-turned,  and 
straight.  Careful  examination  should  be  made  of  this  part, 
for  the  hocks  require  much  study.  The  occurrence  of  bone 
and  bog  spavins  here,  and  often  a  puffy  condition  that 
is  objectionable,  may  escape  notice. 

The  legs  of  the  horse  must  be  inspected  from  in  front  and 
from  one  side.  A  true  carriage,  in  any  event,  is  important. 
Standing  in  front  enables  one  to  see  the  straightness  of  limb, 
and  in  a  way  that  shows  the  relation  of  each  leg  to  its  mate. 
From  this  view  we  judge  whether  the  ankles  will  interfere 
when  the  horse  is  in  motion,  or  whether  or  not  a  true  gait  is 
possible.  From  one  side  we  note  the  position  of  the  legs,  to 
determine  balance  of  action.  If  front  and  hind  legs  are 
tucked  too  much  beneath  the  body,  they  are  liable  to  come 
in  contact  with  each  other  when  in  rapid  action.  If  there  is 
too  much  stretch  and  separation  between  the  limbs  in  front 
and  behind,  then  the  action  will  lack  power.  In  a  natural 
pose  at  rest,  the  front  legs  will  incline  very  slightly  under 
the  body,  with  the  hind  legs  correspondingly  extended  behind. 
The  picture  on  page  145,  although,  of  a  draft  horse,  il- 
lustrates this  position. 

A  foot  inspection  of  the  horse  begins  with  the  foot  at 
rest  and  in  a  natural  position.  Thus  one  is  able  to  note  the 
form,  the  placing  on  the  ground,  shape  of  heel,  and  the  upper 
condition  of  foot,  with  its  relation  to  the  pastern  and  to  the 
fetlock  joint.  The  foot,  however,  should  be  examined  on  its 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


163 


under  side,  and  so  must  be  raised  for  inspection.  The  fore 
foot  is  usually  started  easily  by  running  the  hand  nearest 
the  horse  down  the  shoulder  and  arm  to  the  back  of  the 
cannon,  and  pressing  on  the  tendons  with  the  ends  of  the 
fingers,  raising  the  leg  at  the  same  time,  using  the  other 
hand  to  catch  hold  of  the  hoof  as  it  is  raised  by  the  horse. 
With  one  hand  the  hoof  may  be  easily  held,  while  with  the 


Fig.  87. 


Examining   the   front  foot   of   horse,    showing  method  of  holding. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


other,  any  accumulated  material  under  the  foot  may  be 
removed  by  the  use  of  a  small  pick  of  some  sort.  One  may 
then  easily  examine  the  lower  part  of  the  foot.  The  hind  foot 
is  examined  somewhat  differently.  If  wishing  to  inspect  the 
left  hind  foot,  the  left  hand  is  placed  on  the  croup  and  quietly 
slipped  down  over  the  thigh  to  the  muscle  just  above  the 
hock,  where  a  firm  pressure  with  the  fingers  is  given.  At  the 
same  time  the  right  hand  is  placed  upon  the  pastern,  and  the 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


foot  and  leg  firmly  but  quietly  raised  upward  and  backward, 
reaching  away  from  the  body.  This  brings  the  hoof  in 
front  of  the  examiner,  with  its  lower  surface  facing  to  the 
rear,  and  at  about  knee  height.  No  great  effort  should  be 
made  in  raising  the  feet,  for  the  horse  will  easily  support  him- 
self on  his  three  other  limbs.  Young  horses  require  more 

patience  than  old  ones 
in  foot  examination,  but 
after  a  few  shoeings, 
with  horses  of  good  dis- 
position no  trouble  may 
be  expected.  It  is  wise 
to  move  with  care  about 
the  hind  legs,  especially 
directly  in  the  rear,  to 
avoid  the  chance  of  being 
kicked. 

The  study  of  action 
is  most  important  with 
the  driving  horse.  How 
high  a  valuation  should 
be  given  to  the  gait  will 
depend  upon  the  use  of 
the  horse,  and  the  kind 
of  shoes  he  has  on  his 

feet.  All  carriage  horses,  and  race  horses  in  particular, 
are  so  shod  as  to  regulate  their  action,  if  used  by  men 
who  know  the  relation  of  form  and  weight  of  shoe  to  foot 
and  leg  movement.  A  fancy  driver  should  show  a  snappy, 
stylish  action,  with  the  knees  and  hocks  carried  rather  high 
and  strong.  A  roadster  will  show,  a  longer,  more  powerful, 
yet  plainer  gait,  with  not  so  high  or  short  movement.  \\  hen 
action  is  being  inspected,  the  horse  should  first  be  led  at  a 


Fig.  88.  Showing  correct  position  for 
holding  and  examining  the  hind  foot.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


165 


walk  in  a  direct  line  toward  and  then  away  from  the 
judge,  who  should  carefully  note  the  trueness  of 
movement  of  the  limbs  and  the  way  the  feet  are  carried. 
Next,  the  horse  should  pass  by  at  a  walk,  so  that  the  inspec- 
tion may  be  made  from  one  side,  to  observe  the  freedom  of 


Fig.  89.     Queen  Pandora,  an  example  of  knee  action.     Owned  by  Mrs.  C.  C. 
Fillers.     Photograph  by  courtesy  of  Bit  and  Spur. 


Fig.  90.     An  example  of  a  long,  powerful  stride  in  case  of  a  light  harness  horse. 
Notice  but  one  foot  is  touching  the  ground. 


166 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  91. 


Study  the  action  as  the  horse  comes  toward  you  standing  directly 
in  front. 


Fig.  92.     Study  the  action  as  the  horse  leaves  you,  standing  directly  behind. 


Fig.  93.     As  the  horse  goes  by  at  one  side,  note  the  knee  and  hock  action. 
Photographs  by  courtesy  of  Purdue  University  School  of  Agriculture. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE  167 

movement,  and  flexing  of  knees  and  hocks.  The  next  step 
will  be  to  require  the  horse  to  go  and  come  at  a  gait  faster 
than  a  walk,  the  judge  assuming  the  same  positions  as 
before  while  the  walking  gait  was  being  studied.  Seeing  the 
horse  at  the  walk  and  trot,  or  other  rapid  movement,  will 
enable  him  to  draw  a  conclusion  as  to  the  merits  of  the  gait. 
As  20  points  are  credited  to  the  action  of  the  carriage  horse 
on  the  score  card,  it  may  be  seen  that  this  feature  is  highly 
valued.  Persons  differ  in  their  appreciation  of  action,  and 
some  are  naturally  much  better  judges  than  others.  How- 
ever, if  one  will  study  the  action  from  the  three  points  of  view 
mentioned,  *3ne  will  soon  begin  to  see  how  horses  differ  in  this 
regard. 

The  judgir%  of  the  draft  horse  is  conducted  in  the  same 
manner,  in  many  respects,  as  with  the  carriage  horse.  The 
general  methods  of  study  are  the  same.  The  purposes  of 
the  drafter,  however,  are  different,  and  one  must  have  in 
mind  at  all  times  draft  size  and  conformation.  The  follow- 
ing score  card  on  page  168  is  arranged  for  a  study  of  the 
horse  of  draft  type. 

In  the  study  of  draft  conformation,  emphasis  must  be 
placed  on  two  features,  weight  and  conformation.  The  size 
must  be  large  and  massive,  and  the  nearer  the  weight  to 
1800  or  2000  pounds,  the  truer  will  be  the  draft  form.  An 
examination  from  any  point  of  view  will  show  this  horse  to 
be  deep  and  thick,  both  at  the  ends  and  in  the  middle,  with  a 
compact,  powerful  body  set  on  rather  short  legs.  There  are 
some  details  the  student  should  keep  in  mind  in  this  exami- 
nation. 

The  head  and  neck  will  show  considerable  size,  without 
the  delicate  chiseling  of  head  of  the  lighter  horse.  The  neck 
will  be  heavily  muscled  and  moderately  short. 


168 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


DRAFT  HORSE  SCORE  CARD 


Scale  of  points 


Perfect 


Stu- 
dent's 


Cor- 
rected 


score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

NOTE  HEIGHT weight 1600    Ibs,    or    more 

FORM,  low  set,  massive  in  proportion 

QUALITY,  showing  refinement  in  head,  clean  bone  and 

joints,  fine  skin  and  hair 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

HEAD,  lean,  medium  size;  forehead  broad;  eyes  bright 
and  prominent;  nostrils  large;  lips  even;  muzzle 
fine;  ears  medium  size  and  well  carried;  disposi- 
tion active  and  pleasant 

NECK,  strongly  muscled,  carried  high,  not  thick  at 

throat  latch 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS,  sloping,  smooth,  well  set  in  back 

ARMS,  short  and  wide;  forearm,  long,  widely  muscular 

KNEES,  wide  in  front,  straight,  deep  through 

CANNONS,  short,  inclined  to  be  flat,  lean 

FETLOCKS,  wide,  straight;  pasterns  oblique,  strong    .  . 

FEET,  large,  round,  uniform;  horn  dense;  frog  large; 
heel  wide 

LEGS,  short,  and  carried  in  good  form 

BODY: 

CHEST,  deep,  wide,  low 

BACK,  broad,  short,  level;  ribs  long,  well  sprung;  loin 
wide,  strong 

UNDERLINE,  flanks  low 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

HIPS,  smooth,  wide 

CROUP,  long,  level,  wide;  tail  attached  high 

THIGHS,  long,  muscular;  quarters  heavily  muscled; 
lower  thighs  wide,  strong 

HOCKS,  wide,  deep,  clean  cut,  straight,  well  supported 

CANNONS,  short,  wide,  strong 

FETLOCKS,  wide,  straight;  pasterns    oblique,  strong.. 

FEET,  large,  round,  uniform;  horn  dense;  frog  large; 
heel  wide 

LEGS,  short,  carried  in  good  form 

ACTION: 

WALK,  true,  elastic,  quick 

TROT,  active  for  weight,  regular 


Total  score 


100 


NAME  OP  ANIMAL BREED  . 

OWNER 

SCORED  BY . . .  . .  DATE . . 


.AGE, 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


169 


The  shoulders  of  the  draft  horse  are  usually  less  sloping 
than  those  of  the  lighter  type,  and  are  not  laid  back  in  quite 
as  smoothly.  The  slower,  more  moderate  draft  action  is 
associated  with  this  upright  form  of  shoulder. 

The  cannons  of  the  drafter  incline  to  be  somewhat  thick 
and  round,  especially  in  front.    There  is  no  danger  of  their 
being  too  flat  or  too  short,  and 
emphasis  should   be  placed    on 
this. 

The  pasterns  of  the  draft 
horse  often  appear  short  and 
rather  erect.  To  give  the  easiest 
movement,  they  should  have  fair 
length,  and  a  slope  of  about  45 
degrees.  Some  draft  breeds  have 
a  longer  pastern  than  do  others, 
as  for  example  the  Clydesdale, 
which  is  noted  for  length  and 
springy  character  in  this  respect. 
A  short,  stubby  pastern  is  very 
undesirable,  and  goes  with  a 
hard  gait  that  punishes  the  feet 
and  causes  trouble. 

The  feet  of  the  draft  horse 
must  show  considerable  size. 

The  forefeet  in  particular  should  not  look  too  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  it  is  well  to  emphasize 
the  quality  of  the  hoof.  The  feet  of  horses  of  this  type, 
especially  those  in  front,  are  subject  to  severe  strains,  due 
to  the  great  weight  placed  on  them  and  the  hard  work  on  the 
road.  This  part  should  be  most  carefully  examined.  The 
old  English  saying,  "No  feet,  no  horse,"  has  no  greater 
application  than  with  the  drafter. 


Fig.  94.  A  draft  horse  in 
excellent  position  from  the  front. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


170 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  hind  quarters  of  the  draft  horse  especially  signify 
power.  Therefore  great  length  and  breadth  of  the  croup 
provide  for  thick  powerful  muscles.  As  one  looks  at  this 
part,  he  should  be  impressed  with  the  power  there  available. 
A  common  feature  of  the  draft  horse  at  this  point  is  steepness 
of  croup.  This  is  easily  seen  whether  one  stands  at  one  side 
or  looks  from  behind.  We  do  not  have  much  information 

on  the  difference  in  power  be- 
tween horses  with  steep  croups 
and  those  having  them  more 
level,  but  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  most  beautiful  confor- 
mation goes  with  the  more  level 
condition.  The  greater  the 
length  and  the  more  heavily  the 
muscling  from  the  hips  to  the 
hock,  the  more  powerful  will  be 
the  croup  conformation. 

The  legs  of  the  drafter  should 
not  appear  too  wide  apart  at 
either  hock  or  knee.  Too  much 
spread  is  a  greater  indication  of 
weakness  than  is  closeness.  The 
limbs  should  come  down  in  a 
well-placed  position,  to  stand 
under  somewhat  at  each  corner  of  the  body,  as  it  were. 
In  viewing  the  horse  from  in  front,  one  is  inclined  to  look 
for  too  great  width,  such  as  goes  with  a  stiff  or  clumsy  gait. 
The  action  of  the  draft  horse  is  studied  in  the  same  way 
as  with  the  driver.  More  value,  however,  is  in  this  case 
given  to  the  walk  than  to  a  faster  gait.  A  heavy  draft  horse 
is  rarely  required  to  move  faster  than  a  walk.  However,  he 
should  have  a  quick  walk,  and  be  able  to  move  four  miles  an 


Fig.  95.  A  draft  horse  from 
the  rear,  with  the  legs  too  wide 
apart.  Photograph  by  the  author. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


171 


hour  in  a  free,  easy  manner.  Many  heavy  horses  tend  to  carry 
the  feet  to  one  side  somewhat  when  in  motion.  This  is  in 
a  measure  due  to  the  straight,  open-topped  shoulder.  When 
watching  the  horse  in  action,  look  for  a  strong,  only  moder- 
ately high  knee  and  hock  movement,  but  do  not  look  for 
much  speed.  The  heavy  horse,  however,  inclines  to  drag 
his  feet,  and  this  should 
be  watched  for.  As  one 
stands  behind,  he  should 
easily  see  the  glisten  of 
the  shoe  as  each  foot  is 
raised.  There  are  just 
as  wide  extremes  in  ac- 
tion among  draft  horses 
as  among  carriage  horses, 
but  not  so  much  should 
be  expected  from  the 
former  as  the  latter. 

Opportunities  to  study 
horses  are  frequent,  eith- 
er in  the  country  or  in 
town.  If  one  is  observ- 
ant of  the  horses  that 
are  constantly  passing, 
much  information  of  val- 
ue will  reward  the  effort. 

Comparisons  may  be 
repeatedly  made,  for 

two-horse  teams  always  provide  such  an  opportunity,  while 
in  many  public  places  two  or  more  horses  are  frequently 
standing  side  by  side,  interesting  subjects  for  comparison. 


Fig.  96.  Powerful  draft  horse  confor- 
mation from  behind.  The  camera  being  nea- 
rer the  hind  legs  than  the  front  ones,  the  for- 
mer appear  much  too  long  and  out  of  propor- 
tion. Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 


172  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

AS  A  JUDGE  OF  HORSES,  WHAT 

1.  Features  are  given  the  most  credit  in  the  carriage  horse  score 
card? 

2.  Kind  of  head  and  neck  should  the  carriage  horse  have? 

3.  Is  the  best  method  of  inspecting  the  legs? 

4.  Manner  of  front  foot  examination  is  desirable? 

5.  Kind  of  action  will  be  shown  by  a  fancy  driver? 

6.  Important  differences  exist  in  carriage  and  draft-horse  score 
cards? 

7.  Size  is  desirable  in  the  draft  horse? 

8.  Slope  should  the  pastern  of  the  draft  horse  have,  and  why? 

9.  Description  can  you  give  of  the  croup  of  the  draft  horse? 

10.  Importance  should  be  given  draft  horse  action? 

FOR  OUTSIDE  OBSERVATION  AND  STUDY 

11.  Make  or  get  some  score  cards,  and  score  a  few  of  the  horses  at 
home  or  of  the  neighbors. 

12.  Get  up  a  small  horse  show  among  the  neighbors  and  have  a 
judging  contest.    Interest  the  local  horsemen. 

13.  Learn,  if  possible,  who  owns  the  best  type  of  stallion  in  the 
community.    Why  is  he  best? 

14.  Report  on  the  horse  judging  at  some  fair,  if  you  have  oppor- 
tunity. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  JUDGING  OF  CATTLE 

As  has  already  been  indicated  in  the  discussion  in  Chap- 
ter VI,  our  domestic  cattle  may  be  sorted  into  different  types 
and  classes,  according  to  their  uses.  However,  it  is  not 
important  that  we  go  into  detailed  study  in  this  large  field. 
Special  attention  will  be  given  to  two  types,  such  as  are 


Fig.  97.  Victor,  grand  champion  steer  at  the  1911  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition.  Shown  by  the  Iowa  State  College.  Photograph  by  courtesy 
The  Farmer. 

most  common  over  the  country,  namely,  beef  cattle  and 
dairy  cattle.  If  one  has  a  clear  understanding  of  these,  he 
will  have  but  little  difficulty  in  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  variations  to  be  found  outside  of  these  two  well- 
established  forms. 


174 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 

The  form  of  the  beef  animal,  as  indicated  by  the  score 
card  which  follows,  should  show  breadth,  depth,  and  com- 
pactness. Then  if  this  includes  an  excellent  degree  of  fat- 
ness over  the  body,  known  as  condition,  the  butcher  will 
obtain  from  such  a  carcass  the  greatest  percentage  of  the 
most  valuable  cuts.  Some  writers  on  live  stock  have  com- 
pared the  body  of  fat  cattle  to  a  rectangle,  when  viewed  from 
one  side.  The  body  of  the  animal,  excepting  the  head,  neck, 
and  legs,  would  very  well  fill  a  rectangular  form.  Viewed 

from. either  the  front  or 
the  rear,  the  body  should 
fill  a  square.  Long  ago 
English  writers  made 
use  of  this  illustration  of 
correct  beef  cattle  form, 
and  judges  of  today 
very  generally  approve 
of  the  same  description. 

Fig.  98.     Diagram  showing  the  way  the  If    W6     examine    B,    body 
carcass    of    fat    cattle    cuts    into    wholesale  .  .  «i     j 

pieces,  and  comparative  values.     By  courtesy  that       IS       described      as 
The  Farmer,  ,,  ...       . 

"blocky,"    it    will    be 

noticed  that  those  parts  containing  the  highest  priced 
meats  are  well  developed.  The  part  from  the  hips 
forward  to  the  last  rib  comprises  the  loin.  The  highest 
priced  meat  is  found  here,  and  makes  up  about  17  per 
cent  of  the  carcass.  The  section  of  the  back  and  ribs 
from  the  loin  up  to  the  sixth  rib,  known  as  the  rib  or 
prime-of-rib  cut,  makes  up  about  9  per  cent  of  the  carcass, 
and  is  worth  two  or  three  cents  less  a  pound  than  the  loin. 
The  rib  part  of  the  back  at  the  shoulders  makes  up  about  26 
per  cent  of  the  carcass,  and  is  still  cheaper  than  the  prime- 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


175 


of-ribs.  If  we  view  the  steer  from  behind,  the  rump  and 
quarters  fill  out  into  one  of  the  heaviest  and  meatiest  parts, 
comprising  23  per  cent  of  the  carcass,  and  ranking  third  in 
value  of  the  different  cuts.  Thus  we  see  that  the  more  com- 
pletely the  frame  of  the  animal  is  developed  in  these  parts, 
and  covered  with  a  thick,  smooth,  uniform  layer  of  good 
meat,  the  greater  its  value  will  be  for  beef.  The  head, 


Fig.  99. 


Feeling  for  thickness  of  flank  of  beef  animal.     Photograph  by  the 
author. 


neck,  belly  part,  and  legs  are  rated  as  cheap  meat,  and  there- 
fore these  parts  need  not  be  heavily  developed.  The  ani- 
mal with  big  paunch  and  long  leg  is  discriminated  against 
by  buyers,  who  realize  that  in  killing,  considerable  waste  is 
sure  to  result.  High-class  fat  cattle  will  kill  out  as  much  as 
70  per  cent,  or  even  more,  carcass  to  offal,  while  a  common 
or  inferior  animal  of  leggy  conformation  will  dress  around  50 


176 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


per  cent.    Thus  the  butcher  usually  prefers  to  buy  the  better 
class  of  animals,  which  dress  out  60  per  cent  or  more. 

The  condition  of  a  beef  animal  refers  to  the  covering  of 
flesh  or  degree  of  fatness.  Thin  animals  are  spoken  of  as  in 
thin  condition,  while  fat  ones  are  in  fat  condition.  The  con- 
dition is  determined  mainly  by  the  eye  of  the  judge.  The 
well-fattened  animal  shows  plumpness  of  body.  His  more 
exposed  portions,  like  the  hips  and  shoulder  points,  are 


Fig.  100. 


Feeling  along  the  back  of  a  steer  to  study  depth  of  covering  of  flesh. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


covered  with  flesh.  When  a  fat  steer  moves,  the  flesh  about 
his  breast  and  in  his  flanks  shows  more  movement  than  is 
seen  in  a  thin-fleshed  animal.  The  hand  may  also  assist  the 
eye  in  inspecting  fat  cattle.  When  using  the  hand,  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  are  kept  together,  and  are  pressed  along  the 
middle  of  the  back  and  on  the  sides  over  the  ribs.  The 
thickness  and  firmness  of  covering  is  easily  determined  by  the 
touch.  A  mellow,  yet  firm  resistance  to  the  hand  pressure 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


177 


should  be  felt.  A  common  custom  among  buyers  of  fat 
cattle  is  also  to  feel  the  covering  of  the  end  of  the  rump  and 
the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  to  grasp  in  the  hand  the  hind 
flank,  which  should  be  low  and  full  in  a  well-finished  beast. 
A  thin,  hard  covering  at  these  points  shows  that  the  animal 
lacks  in  covering  of  flesh. 

The  indications  of  quality  in  beef  cattle  are  fineness  of 
bone;  a  silky,  heavy  coat  of  hair;  a  mellow,  elastic  skin;  and 


Fig.  101. 


Handling  the  hide  to  study  thickness  and  quality, 
author. 


Photograph  by 


refinement,  as  seen  in  the  head  in  particular,  and  in  the  entire 
form  in  general.  Large  ears,  heavy  bones  and  joints,  a  hard 
thick  skin,  and  coarse  wiry  hair  are  all  evidences  of  a  poor 
digestive  capacity  and  lack  of  quality.  In  the  case  of  beef 
cattle,  smoothness  and  uniformity  of  covering  are  also  indi- 
cations of  quality.  In  the  carcass,  fineness  of  grain  of  flesh 
and  a  good  distribution  of  fat  particles  among  the  fibers  are 
measures  of  the  quality  of  the  meat.  If  the  ribs  and  back 


178 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


have  lumps  or  rolls  of  fat,  and  the  rump  is  also  rough,  then 
the  quality  of  carcass  will  be  of  inferior  grade.  Such  a  con- 
dition should  be  easily  observable. 

A  scale  of  points  for  fat  cattle  is  here  given.     This  is  made 
somewhat  brief,  but  covers  the  important  features. 

A  SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  CATTLE 


Scale  of  points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 
score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

SIZE  AND  WEIGHT,  score  according  to  age.     Example: 

12  mos.,  850  Ibs.;  30  mos.,  1500  Ibs 6 

FORM,  top  and  underline  straight;  broad,  deep,  com- 
pact, low-set,  not  paunchy 10 

QUALITY,  refined,  as  shown  by  fine  bone;  mellow,  elas- 
tic hide;  soft,  silky  hair;  clean  cut  head 10 

CONDITION,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm,  mellow  flesh, 

free  from  patches  and  rolls 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

MUZZLE,  broad;  nostrils  large;  face  short 2 

EYES,  large  and  placid;  forehead  broad 2 

EARS,  of  medium  size  and  not  coarse 1 

NECK,  thick  and  short,  neat  at  throat 2 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS,    well   placed,    smoothly    covered,    nicely 

fitted  to  neck 5 

BRISKET,  wide  showing  full  breast,  not  much  dewlap  2 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  shank  fine 2 

BODY: 

CHEST,  deep,  wide;  girth  large 5 

BACK,  broad,  straight,  thick  and  smoothly  fleshed ....  8 

LOIN,  thick,  broad 10 

RIBS,  long,  well  sprung,  thickly  and  smoothly  covered          8 
FLANKS,  full 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

HIPS,  well  set  in,  and  smooth 1 

RUMP,  long,  wide,  not  droopy,  nor  patchy;  tail  head 

smooth 4 

THIGHS,  thick  and  full;  twist  plump 

LEGS,  well  placed,  short,  straight;  shanks  fine 

Total  points 100 


In  judging  fat  cattle,  either  by  the  score  card  or  other- 
wise, the  general  appearance  should  be  first  considered.  As 
one  walks  about  the  animal>  he  compares  the  size  with  what 
he  thinks  it  should  be  for  the  age,  and  notes  the  general  form, 
condition,  and  quality, — features  that  have  already  been 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


179 


discussed.  Having  made  this  inspection,  the  next  thing  will 
be  to  consider  the  detailed  features  of  conformation.  Begin- 
ning with  the  head,  we  seek  for  evidences  of  the  good  feeder 
and  a  pleasant  disposition.  A  broad  muzzle,  with  shortness 
from  this  point  to  the  eyes,  usually  indicates  constitution 
and  feeding  capacity.  A  clear,  prominent  eye  denotes  a 
pleasant  disposition;  and  the  broad,  full  forehead,  a  com- 


Fig.  102. 


Examining  the  covering  of  flesh  over  the  shoulder.    Photograph  by 
the  author. 


paratively  high  degree  of  intelligence.  The  eye  is  an  impor- 
tant guide  to  the  disposition,  and  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered. The  ears  are  a  guide  to  quality,  for  if  large  and 
thick,  and  heavy  at  the  base,  they  indicate  coarseness.  The 
reason  for  desiring  a  short  neck  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
cheap  meat.  The  short,  thick  neck  is  also  an  evidence  of 
constitutional  vigor,  for  it  is  connected  with  a  wide,  full 
breast.  Back  of  this  should  be  a  capacious  chest,  with 


180 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


ample  room  for  the  vital  organs.  A  strong,  vigorous  con- 
stitution is  very  important  with  all  kinds  of  stock.  One 
must  see  the  character  of  neck  from  the  side  and  top,  and  may 
easily  note  the  way  it  joins  both  head  and  shoulders.  From 
the  side,  one  notes  the  placing  of  shoulders,  their  slope  and 
smoothness  of  covering,  the  blending  of  the  neck  with  the 
shoulder  at  the  so-called  "  shoulder  vein,"  and  the  spread 

between  the  blades  at  the 
top.  The  wide  spread 
shoulder  top  is  not  desired 
because  it  means  lack  of 
covering  of  flesh  and  indi- 
cates a  narrow  floor  of 
the  chest.  From  in  front, 
the  fullness  of  breast,  the 
carriage  of  brisket,  and 
length  of  leg  are  easily 
seen.  The  brisket,  being 
the  portion  that  extends 
forward  between  the  fore- 
legs, is  the  sternum  proper, 
and  with  the  best  of  fat 
cattle  is  usually  thick  and 
and  prominent.  Beginning  at 
the  brisket,  extending  up- 
ward from  the  front  of  the 

neck,  is  a  thin  fold  of  skin  known  as  the  dewlap,  which  is 
undesirable  to  have  in  any  great  amount.  As  a  rule,  the 
dewlap  is  not  prominent  on  beef  cattle,  being  more  in  evidence 
on  lighter-fleshed  stock,  and  in  certain  breeds.  The  front 
legs  should  be  short,  and  the  feet  stand  squarely  on 
the  ground,  the  toes  pointing  straight  ahead.  The  bone 
just  below  the  knee,  known  as  the  shank,  which  is  termed 


Fig.  103.     Inspecting     the     rump 
feeling    point    of    rump    to    note    condition. 
Photograph  by    he  author. 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


181 


the  cannon  bone  with  the  horse,  should  be  reasonably  fine 
and  short,  an  important  indication  of  quality.  When  the 
front  legs  stand  well  apart,  we  usually  find  plenty  of  chest 
capacity.  The  body  of  the  beef  animal  requires  large  size 
and  capacity,  the  wide  back  giving  room  for  the  valuable  cuts 
already  described.  Fullness  and  depth  of  body  also  go  with 
the  digestive  capacity  sought  for  in  a  good  feeder.  A  study 
of  the  body  capacity  and  value  should  be  made  from  one  side 
and  from  above  the  animal,  to  observe  the  thickness  and 
spring  of  rib.  Emphasis  may  be  placed  on  this  last  feature, 
for  a  well-sprung,  long  rib  means  thickness  and  depth  of 
body.  Shortness  of  coupling  from  the  hip  to  the  nearest 
rib  is  also  important,  if  we  are  to  have  compactness  of  form. 
An  examination  of  the  hind  quarter  is  made  from  a  point 
opposite  the  thigh,  and  from  directly  behind.  Good  length 
from  the  hips  to  the  end 
of  the  body  near  the  tail, 
to  what  are  caUed  the  pin- 
bones,  is  important;  for 
here  we  find  large,  heavy 
muscles  of  very  good  qual- 
ity for  meat.  The  longer, 
broader,  and  fuller  this 
part,  the  more  flesh  one 
should  expect  to  find.  The 
thighs,  which  extend  to  the 
hocks,  should  show  length 
and  thickness.  From  a 
side  view,  the  distance 
from  the  point  of  hip  to 
the  hock  should  be  great,  with  the  hind  flank  appear- 
ing low  down.  From  the  rear,  the  thighs  should  appear 
thick,  and  straight  of  edge  on  the  outer  part,  with 


Fig.  104.  Roan  James,  reserve  grand 
champion  steer,  1910  International  Exposi- 
tion. Shown  by  Jas.  Leask,  of  Canada. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 


182 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


the  space  between  filled  in  full  and  low.  Between,  where  the 
thick  lower  part  of  the  upper  thigh  meets  the  lower  thigh,  is 
located  the  twist.  On  high-class  fat  cattle,  the  twist  has  a 
very  short,  wide  curve.  The  poorer  the  hind  quarter  from  a 
beef  standpoint,  the  less  noticeable  the  twist.  The  hind 
legs,  from  behind,  should  appear  straight,  with  the  points 

of  the  hocks  well  separat- 
ed and  the  toes  directed 
straight  ahead.  If  the 
hocks  touch  at  the  points, 
and  the  toes  turn  out,  the 
animal  is  called  "  cow 
hocked."  This  bad  posi- 
tion throws  the  thighs 
close  together  and  pre- 
vents the  desired  thick- 
ness. It  is  also  important 
that  the  shank  bones,  from 
a  side  view,  stand  nearly  vertical,  thereby  supporting  the 
parts  above  so  as  to  provide  the  best  conformation. 

In  judging  breeding  beef  cattle,  certain  essentials  should 
be  kept  in  mind.  Masculine  character  of  head  and  neck  are 
important  with  the  males,  and  feminine  features  with  the 
females.  The  head  of  the  bull  is  usually  large,  is  rougher 
haired  at  the  forehead  and  poll,  and  carries  a  strong  horn,  if 
of  the  horned  sort.  The  neck  is  also  thicker  and  more 
crested  than  with  the  steer,  and  the  shoulders  usually  are 
somewhat  prominent,  though  not  necessarily  so.  The  cows 
have  refined  heads,  with  light  horns,  and  the  neck  is  of  but 
medium  thickness  and  length.  The  udder,  also,  should  show 
plenty  of  capacity.  In  general  form  of  body,  breeding  cattle 
should  possess  the  important  features  already  described,  but 
should  lack  in  flesh  as  compared  with  fat  stock. 


Fig.  105.  A  front  view  of  beef  cattle, 
showing  breadth  of  chest.  Photograph  by 
courtesy  The  Farmer. 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


183 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  size  of  the  dairy  animal  is  not  material,  unless  in  the 
case  of  a  breed  that  has  certain  size  requirements.  Among 
grade  animals  may  be  found  valuable  producers  at  wide 
ranges  of  size.  There  are  large  producers  in  each  breed,  from 
the  little  Dexter,  weighing  500  pounds,  up  to  the  Holstein, 
weighing  1800.  For  this  reason,  size  is  of  minor  importance, 
if  producing  capacity  and  proper  conformation  exist. 


Fig.  106.     Daisy  Grace   DeKol,   a  famous  Holstein-Friesian  cow,  that  shows 
dairy   type.     Photograph   from   the    owners,    Dimmick   Bros.,    of   Ohio. 

The  general  form  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  somewhat 
wedge-shaped,  often  referred  to  as  the  " triple  wedge."  This 
shape  really  means  a  narrowness  in  front  and  heaviness 
behind.  As  one  looks  at  a  typical  dairy  cow  from  one 
side,  the  front  part  seems  less  deep  than  that  behind. 
If  a  stick  of  ample  length  were  laid  along  the  back, 
and  another  were  placed  in  a  similar  position  against  the 


184  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

under  side  of  the  body,  they  would  meet  at  a  common  point 
in  front,  if  sufficiently  extended.  Thus  we  see  one  of  the 
wedge  features.  If  one  stands  in  front  and  looks  towards  the 
rear  of  the  animal  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  thickness  through 
the  front  quarter  at  the  shoulder  is  less  than  that  of  the  hind 
quarter  at  the  hips  or  just  below.  This  gives  a  second  wedge 
conformation.  The  third  wedge  is  seen  by  standing  at  the 
shoulder  and  looking  down  over  the  withers  and  ribs.  From 
the  withers  the  ribs  gradually  widen  out  to  form  a  noticeable 
wedge  in  the  upper  half  of  the  body.  Thus  we  may  see 
the  three  wedges  in  the  conformation  of  the  dairy  cow. 

The  general  form  of  the  dairy  bull  shows  much  less  of 
the  wedge  shape  than  the  cow.  However,  the  best  bulls 
have  a  certain  amount  of  thinness  at  the  withers,  and  the 
body  is  long  and  muscular.  The  depth  at  the  hind  quarter 
is  much  the  same  as  at  the  fore  quarter,  although  the  males 

are  frequently  somewhat 
high  at  the  rear  flanks. 
While  the  thighs,  from  a 
side  view,  appear  muscu- 
lar, as  is  the  case  with  the 
cow,  from  the  rear  they 
should  be  thin  and  widely 
and  highly  separated.  A 
beefy  appearance  of  the 
thigh  in  this  type  is  most 
i  jFig;  10u  i  Si^  B£e*s  .Cornuc°pia  Nether-  undesirable. 

land.     A     Holstem-Fnesian     bull,     showing 

Phot°-        Quality  in  dairy  cattle 


has  certain  features  in 
common  with  the  beef  type,  such  as  fineness  of  hair  and  bone 
and  mellowness  of  skin.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  thickness 
and  length  of  the  coat  of  hair,  which  is  usually  much  shorter 
and  thinner  on  dairy  than  on  beef  cattle.  The  dairy  ani- 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


185 


mal,  as  a  rule,  has  the  thinner  and  more  elastic  hide  of  the 
two.  Those  cattle  that  are  of  Jersey  or  Guernsey  blood,  have 
very  mellow,  most  elastic  hides,  that  sometimes  resemble  a 
mole  skin  in  their  soft,  pliable  nature.  Yellow  color  in  the 
ears,  skin  and  horns  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  quality,  and 
indicates  the  production  of  milk  rich  in  color.  The  Guernsey 
cattle  club  places  such  a  high  value  on  the  color  of  the  secre- 


Fig.  108.  Dairy  bull  type,  showing  the  muscular  form  and  thin  thighs. 
This  is  Lord  Yeksa,  a  Guernsey  bull.  Photograph  from  the  owner,  J.  H.  Beirne, 
of  Wisconsin. 

tions,  that  15  points  are  allowed  this  feature  in  their  scale  of 
points. 

The  temperament  of  the  dairy  animal  should  show  plenty 
of  nervous  force.  This  does  not  mean  an  excitable  dispo- 
sition, but  lively  rather  than  phlegmatic.  Dairy  bulls 
usually  show  plenty  of  nervous  force,  as  compared  with 
beef  stock.  The  cow  is  constituted  to  produce  milk,  which 
requires  a  large  amount  of  vitality  and  nervous  energy. 


186 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Indications  of  the  temperament  are  easily  seen  in  the  prom- 
inence and  character  of  expression  of  the  eye.  Some  claims 
have  been  made  that  prominence  of  the  spine  indicates  a 
large  spinal  cord  and  active  brain,  being  a  further  indication 
of  nervous  force.  There  is  very  little  information  on  this 
subject,  however,  that  will  justify  drawing  conclusions. 

In  judging  dairy  cattle,  beyond  what  has  already  been 
stated,  there  are  certain  things  to  be  considered  that  espe- 
cially apply  to  this  type,  as  set  forth  in  the  following  score 
card: 

A  SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  Cows 


Scale  of  points 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

SIZE,  large,  medium,  or  small 

FOKM,  wedge  shape  from  front,  side,  and  top;  mus- 
cular    8 

QUALITY,  hair  fine,  silky;  skin  mellow,  loose;   bone 

fine 8 

TEMPERAMENT,  active,  showing  nervous  force 2 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

MUZZLE,  broad;    face  lean,  shapely 

EYES,  prominent,  bright;  forehead   broad 3 

EARS,  medium  size,  not  coarse ,,. 1 

NECK,  somewhat  long,  not  thick,  weJl  placed;  clean  at 

throat;  light  dewlap 2 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS,  light,  oblique;  withers  lean; 3 

LEGS,  straight,  short;  shank  fine 2 

BODY: 

CHEST,  deep,  girth  large;  crops  not  much  depressed .  .  . 
BACK,  lean,  strong,  well  defined;  ribs  long,  well  sprung          5 

LOIN,  broad,  long,  level 4 

BARREL,  deep,  large  capacity,  with  low  flanks 5 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

HIPS,  wide  apart,  not  fleshy 3 

RUMP,  broad,  long,  not  droopy;  pin  bones  wide  apart          4 

TAIL,  long,  fine;  good  switch 1 

THIGHS,  thin,  long,  wide  apart 4 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  wide  apart;  shanks  fine 2 

MAMMARY  DEVELOPMENT: 

UDDER,  large,  carried  well  in  front  along  the  belly,  and 
high  up  behind,  thick,  mellow;  quarters  even  and 

not  much  grooved  between 22 

TEATS,  3  to  4  inches  long,  well  placed:  an  easy  milker          4 
MILK  VEINS,  large,  long,  tortuous  or  winding,  entering 

large   wells 8 

Total  points 100 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


187 


The  head  should  be  lean  and  shapely.  In  general,  the 
wide  muzzle,  short  face,  strong  jaw,  prominent  eye,  and 
broad  forehead  are  desired.  In  most  cases,  a  "  dished"  face 
is  popular.  This  feature  is  a  slight  depression  of  the  head  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  forehead  and  between  the  eyes.  Yet 
all  breeds  do  not  have  it.  The  dish-face  is  very  character- 
istic of  the  Jersey,  but  is  not  so  pronounced  in  the  Holstein- 
Friesian.  A  broad  muzzle,  short  face,  and  strong,  wide 
jaw,  indicate  a  vigorous  feeder.  The  eye  should  be  prominent 
yet  show  a  mild  disposi- 
tion, as  indicated  by  clear- 
ness of  the  whites  and 
quietness  of  expression. 
Dairy  bulls  often  have 
eyes  that  indicate  very 
clearly  their  character. 
The  ears  should  be  medi- 
um of  size  and  thin  of 
texture,  and  be  neatly 
attached  to  the  head.  A 
yellow  or  orange  color 
within  the  ear  is  desirable. 
The  horns,  when  present, 


rpfinpmpnt      The  Ayrshire  Isabella  3d.     Photograph  by 

rennemeni, 


Fig.  109.     A  type  of  head  of  dairy  cow — 
Ayrshire   Isabella  3d.     ' 
courtesy  of  C.  M.  Winslow. 

and    not    be    large    and 

heavy  at  the  union  with  the  head.  A  small  horn  is 
preferred  on  the  females,  and  some  of  the  best  known 
dairy  sires  have  had  rather  small  horns.  A  thin,  mus- 
cular, somewhat  long  neck  on  the  cow,  and  a  strong, 
heavily  muscled,  rather  crested  neck  on  the  males,  are  desir- 
able. When  the  neck  blends  well  with  the  head,  there  is 
no  unnatural  fullness  at  the  throat.  The  union  of  the  neck 
with  the  shoulders  should  also  be  smooth.  Dairy  animals 


188 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


sometimes    have  a    heavy  dewlap,  which  is  rather   objec- 
tionable. 

The  shoulders  of  the  dairy  animal  incline  to  be  somewhat 
prominent  and  are  often  rough.  This  is  in  most  cases  due 
to  the  lack  of  covering  of  flesh.  The  smoothness  of  the 
shoulder  found  in  the  beef  animal  is  not  to  be  expected  with 
the  dairy  type,  but  the  blades  should  extend  well  into  the 
back  and  not  be  coarse.  The  withers  above  the  shoulders 
should  be  lean  and  somewhat  sharp.  In  fact,  dairy  cattle 

judges  place  a  premium  on 
thin,  sharp  withers.  Many 
great  producing  cows,  how- 
ever, have  some  thickness  or 
fleshiness  at  this  point.  Oc- 
casionally, one  will  find  dairy 
cows  with  the  shoulder  points 
noticeably  separated  from  the 
body.  This  is  what  is  called 
a  spread  shoulder,  and  shows 
a  weakening  of  the  muscular 
attachment.  Such  a  cow  has 
an  undesirable  appearance, 
but  otherwise  is  not  seriously 
affected. 

The  body  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  deep  at  the  chest, 
yet  not  thick.  As  one  views  the  animal  from  one  side,  the 
depth  from  the  top  of  withers  to  bottom  of  the  chest  should 
be  much  greater  than  the  length  of  leg.  From  a  front  view, 
the  chest  appears  somewhat  narrow.  Not  much  depression 
back  of  the  shoulders  below  the  withers,  at  the  point  known 
as  the  "crops,"  is  desired,  for  this  indicates  weakness  in 
heart  girth.  The  same  criticism  will  apply  at  the  fore  flank. 
The  back  should  be  well  and  strongly  carried,  with  the  spine 


Fig.  110.  The  withers  of  the  dairy 
cow.  Photograph  by  courtesy  of 
The  Farmer. 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


189 


easily  seen  above  and  beyond  the  shoulders.  A  strong- 
ly arched  rib  will  give  a  wide  back  and  a  muscular  loin, 
which  are  most  desirable,  while  plenty  of  additional  length  of 
rib  will  mean  ample  digestive  capacity.  In  examining  the 
body  with  the  hands,  one  should  be  able  to  place  two  fingers 
held  side  by  side  easily  between  the  last  ribs  of  mature  dairy 


Fig.  111. 


Looking  along  the  top  ot  body  to  note  conformation, 
by  tba  author. 


Photograph 


Fig.  112.     Two  Jersey  cows,  one  showing  constitution  and  depth  of  body, 
the  other  a  short  rib  and  poor  feeding  capacity.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


190 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


cattle.  The  opinion  prevails,  that  with  dairy  animals 
there  should  be  length  of  body  with  the  ribs  less  closely 
placed  together  than  is  the  case  with  beef  cattle.  Conse- 
quently, a  body  of  considerable  length  meets  with  favor. 
Some  judges  prefer  the  hind  flank  to  be  somewhat  high,  but 
this  is  associated  with  lack  of  depth  of  body,  signifying  a 
deficient  digestive  capacity. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  dairy  animal  have  been  the  cause 
of  much  discussion.  The  hips  of  the  cows  should  be  some- 
what prominent  and  lean.  With  the  males,  less  prominence 

of  hip  is  desired.  In  the  case 
of  each  sex,  much  length  and 
breadth,  with  level  carriage 
of  rump,  is  wanted.  Below 
this  part,  the  thighs,  as  viewed 
from  one  side,  should  appear 
muscular  and  long.  From  the 
rear  view,  the  thighs  should 
seem  thin,  and  placed  wide 
apart,  giving  ample  room  be- 
tween for  a  large  udder.  We 
sometimes  say  that  the  thighs 
are  incurving,  which  means 
that  from  the  point  of  the  rump 
or  pin  bone,  each  thigh  curves  slightly  for  a  distance  towards 
the  body  before  curving  outward  to  form  the  top  of  the  hock. 
The  tail  should  have  a  neat  placing  on  the  body,  and  its 
fleshy  part  should  hang  in  a  perpendicular  position  to  the 
hocks,  showing  considerable  space  between  it  and  the  thigh 
as  viewed  from  one  side.  A  beefy  character  of  any  part  of 
the  hind  quarter  is  very  undesirable.  The  tendency  is  to 
show  fleshiness  at  the  top  of  the  rump  over  the  hips  and 
pin  bones,  and  on  the  thighs.  A  straight,  wide  carriage  of 


Fig.  113.  Showing  length  of  rump 
of  the  dairy  cow.  Photograph  by 
courtesy  The  Farmer. 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


191 


the  legs  is  most  essential,  as  has  already  been  explained  and 
as  will  be  brought  out  further  on. 

The  mammary  development  of  the  cow  includes  the  udder, 
teats,  and  milk  veins  and  wells.  It  is  necessary  to  examine 
this  part  carefully  with  both  eye  and  hand. 

The  udder  consists  of  two  large  glands  suspended  between 
the  legs.  One  gland  is  the  right  half  of  the  udder,  and  the 


Fig.  114.  A  beautiful  udder  on  a  great  show  cow  of  dairy  type — Bosnian's 
Anna,  Jersey  champion  for  1910.  C.  I.  Hudson,  of  New  York,  owner.  Photo- 
graph by  courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall. 

other  the  left.  Each  gland  is  also  divided  into  two  halves, 
known  as  quarters.  As  we  view  the  udder  at  one  side,  we 
see  the  front  and  hind  quarters  of  the  gland.  The  form  of 
udder  that  is  most  approved  follows  the  line  of  a  circle  in 
part,  although  we  look  for  the  rear  portion  to  be  carried  up 
high  beyond  the  line  of  the  circle,  and  the  fore  part  to  extend 


192 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


well  along  under  the  belly,  on  a  uniform  level.  Therefore 
these  udder  lines  above  and  below  prolong  beyond  the  circle. 
Viewed  from  the  rear,  the  udder  should  appear  thick,  and 
should  occupy  completely  the  space  between  the  thighs, 
and  extend  up  high  along  the  thigh.  Examination  with 
the  hand  should  show  no  deep  separation  or  division 
between  the  glands  or  quarters,  but  only  slight  grooves.  As 
a  rule,  the  hind  udder  is  somewhat  narrower  than  the  fore 
udder,  due  to  the  limited  space  between  the  thighs.  Thus 


Fig.  115.     Four  hind-end  presentations,  showing  good  and  bad  placings  of  legs. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

one  may  see  the  importance  of  having  the  thighs  widely 
separated  to  provide  room  for  the  udder.  The  teats  should 
be  of  convenient  size  for  grasping  by  the  average-sized  hand, 
and  a  length  of  three  to  four  inches  is  satisfactory.  They 
should  be  placed  at  a  fair  distance  apart,  such  as  will  permit 
of  easy  milking,  without  the  hands  being  in  the  way  of  each 
other.  The  judge  should  examine  each  teat  carefully,  and 
see  that  it  milks  without  difficulty,  and  is  all  right.  The 
form  of  the  udder  is  rather  variable.  The  most  common 
weakness  is  an  inferior  front  development,  with  the  teats  of 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


193 


this  part  placed  much  higher  than  those  behind.    The  smaller 

the  fore  udder  in  comparison  with  the  hind  part,  the  less  its 

producing    capacity.    With    age,    the    udder    frequently 

becomes  pendant;  that  is,   hangs 

low  down.   This  is  a  special  feature 

of  those  cows  that  become  heavy 

milk-producers.     In    acting    as    a 

judge  in  the  show  ring,  one  may 

find   it  desirable  to  request    that 

certain    cows   be    milked.    Some 

cows  have  meaty  udders  of  quite 

limited  capacity,  and  to  make  a 

fair    study    of    this    gland,    one 

should  see  it  both  full  and  empty.      Fi^.n,6-  ,  A-very  ..,f 

1     J      poor  kind  of  udder,  with  inferior 

When  empty,  the  glands   should  jl°I3;£iarters'  Photograph  by  the 
be    considerably    shrunken,    and 

when  pressed   by   the  hands,    should  feel  uniformly    mel- 
low and  smooth  to  the  touch.     The  judge  should  take  it  in 


Fig.  117. 
13— 


Notice  the  elastic  hind  udder  held  by  the  man. 
author. 


Photograph  by  the 


194 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


his  hands  and  press  it  between  the  palms,  and  examine  it 
generally  as  to  its  condition,  noting  whether  smooth  of  tissue, 
or  if  lumps  or  knots  occur.  Again,  examination  may  show 
imperfect  quarters  or  defective  teats. 

The  milk  veins  are  located  along  on  the  belly  from  the  udder 
forward.  Usually  there  is  one  vein  on  each  side,  and  some- 
times a  shorter  one  between.  Through  these  veins  the  blood 
passes  from  the  udder  to  the  heart.  A  side  view  of  the  cow 
shows  something  of  the  vein  on  that  side.  On  young  cows 
it  is  smaller  and  less  prominent  than  on  old  ones.  It  varies 
in  size,  length,  and  form.  To  examine  it  carefully,  it  is 

necessary  to  bend  over  enough 
to  look  up  beneath  the  body 
and  see  the  whole  milk-vein 
system.  Usually  the  vein  is 
about  five-eighths  of  an  inch 


Fig.  118.     The   milk   well   at  end  of 
vein.    Photograph  by  the  author. 


wide,  and  after  extending  along 
the  belly  half  way  or  so  from 
udder  to  fore  legs,  disappears 
through  a  hole  in  the  belly 
wall,  known  as  the  "milk  well." 
Sometimes  the  veins  are  very 
large  and  long,  and  have  a 

more  or  less  tortuous,  or  serpentine  course.  The  larger  and 
longer  the  veins,  the  greater  the  cow  as  a  milker.  Sometimes 
we  find  the  belly  immediately  in  front  of  the  udder  covered 
with  small  veins,  and  occasionally  they  also  occur  on  the 
udder.  All  these  small  veins  are  indications  that  the  cow  is 
more  than  an  average  milk  producer.  The  milk  wells  vary 
in  size,  from  those  so  small  that  they  ane  not  at  once  dis- 
covered, to  those  so  large  that  the  end  of  the  finger  can  easily 
be  placed  therein.  We  really  know  nothing  about  the  value 
of  the  veins  or  wells,  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  as  indi- 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


195 


Bating  milk  production,  but  practical  experience  has  rated 
them  as  important  according  to  their  size  and  development. 
Small  wells  are  associated  with  similarly  small  veins,  and 
together  they  limit  the  supply  of  blood  passing  through  the 
udder  and  thus  affect  milk  production. 

SUPPOSE  SOME  ONE  SHOULD  ASK  YOU 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  "blocky"  body? 

2.  How  you  could  tell  whether  a  beef  animal  was  fat  or  not? 

3.  To  give  the  indications  of  quality? 

4.  How  much  a  beef  animal  should  weigh  at  30  months  old? 

5.  To  describe  condition? 

6.  What  position  the  front  legs  should  take,  and  why? 

7.  How  the   head    and 
neck  of  the  bull  differ  from 
those  of  the  cow? 

8.  To  describe  the  triple- 
wedge  form? 

9.  The  meaning  of  tem- 
perament in  dairy  cattle? 

10.  To   give    the   most 
important    features    of  the 
dairy  cow  score  card? 

11.  What  kind  of  rib  de- 
velopment should  be  looked 
for  in  the  dairy  cow? 

12.  To  describe  the  most 

.     .     .  .     ,  Fig.  119.     The  kind  of  cow  one  should  not 

desirable  form  of  udder  r        •  own.    Photograph  by  the  author.      • 


SOME  INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  DO 

13.  Scoring  your  own  or  a  neighbor's  beef  animals. 

14.  Picking  out  the  best  individuals  among  cattle  in  a  feed  lot. 

15.  Comparing  the  best  and  poorest  dairy  cows  in  the  herd.     Why 
is  one  best  and  the  other  poorest? 

16.  If  you  have  a  dairy  herd  at  home,    make   a  few  group  studies 
of  four  animals  in  each. 

17.  Organize  a  local  beef  or  dairy  cattle  show. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 

The  catching  and  holding  of  a  sheep  for  inspection  is 
usually  a  simple  matter  if  correctly  done.  To  catch  the 
sheep,  seize  a  hind  leg  at  the  hock  or  flank  and  gently  pull 

him  to  the  location  desired. 
Never  grasp  and  pull  the  wool, 
for  the  more  the  fleece  is  pull- 
ed the  harder  the  sheep  will 
struggle  to  escape.  Next  place 
the  left  hand  below  the  jaw, 
palm  up,  and  quietly  hold 
the  head  and  throat,  and  then 
reach  back  to  the  right  hind 
quarter  with  the  right  hand  and 
pull  the  sheep  squarely  in  front 

Fig.  120.     Examining    the    leg    of     nf  nr.p'o   Ipo-a   flTir|    P1n<3A  tn    tViP 

mutton.     Photograpk  by  the  author. 

body.    If  it  is  desired  to  move 

the  sheep  forward,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  press  gently 
forward  with  the  right  hand.  If  that  is  not  enough,  then 
place  the  finger  tips  at  and  beneath  the  root  of  the  tail,  and 
the  sheep  will  move  forward  without  trouble.  Sheep  that 
are  accustomed  to  handling,  as  a  rule,  may  easily  be  held  by 
placing  the  left  hand  under  the  lower  jaw,  and  holding 
the  back  of  the  head  or  neck  with  the  right  hand.  In 
judging-work  at  a  school,  a  small  rope  halter  will  be  found 
useful  in  simplifying  the  matter  of  holding  and  the  use  of 
attendants. 

To  examine  the  under  side  of  the  sheep,  it  is  desirable 
sometimes  to  place  the  animal  on  its  rump.  To  do  this,  one 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


197 


should  pass  the  left  hand  under  the  neck  and  grasp  the  right 
forearm.  Then  reach  forward  and  under  the  sheep  with  the 
right  hand  and  grasp  the  right  hind  leg  at  the  hock;  by  a 
slight  pull  of  the  right  hand,  and  a  push  of  the  body  against 
the  sheep,  the  animal  will  naturally  swing  down  upon  its 
rump.  When  in  this  position,  the  sheep  is  held  with  the  left 
hand,  with  the  sheep's  back  resting  against  the  holder's 
knees.  This  operation  becomes  easy  with  a  little  practice. 
How  to  study  the  sheep.  During  much  of  the  year, 
except  for  a  short  time  after  shearing,  perhaps,  the  bodies 
of  sheep  are  covered  with  wool.  This  varies  greatly  in 
length,  but  is  frequently  3^  to  4  inches  long.  With  this 
covering  of  wool,  it  is  impossible  to  judge  the  merits  of  the 
animal,  except  with  the  assistance  of  the  hands ;  for  the  fleece 
covers  defects  that  may  be  felt,  but  not  so  readily  seen.  Men 
who  exhibit  sheep  usually  trim  the  wool,  or  block  it  out,  as  it 
is  termed,  so  as  to  make  the  animal  look  very  symmetrical 
and  attractive.  While  one 
should  survey  the  general 
appearance  of  the  sheep,  as 
in  the  case  of  other  animals, 
the  use  of  the  hands  is  an 
added  necessity.  While  ex- 
amining a  mutton  sheep, 
one  should  keep  the  fingers 
of  each  hand  close  together, 
and  then  press  them  flat 
on  the  wool,  not  allowing 
single  fingers  to  stick  into 
the  fleece.  It  is  important  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  dirt,  not  to  open  the  fleece,  except 
at  places  where  it  naturally  parts  or  breaks  between  two 
locks.  The  back  wool,  especially,  should  be  kept  closed. 


Fig.  121.  Studying  the  thickness 
of  flesh  over  the  back.  Photograph 
by  the  author. 


198  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

With  the  fingers  one  may  press  the  wool  firmly  enough  to 
feel  the  flesh  below,  to  determine  the  extent  and  uniformity 
of  fattening  or  covering  over  the  frame,  and  whether  the  wool 
hides  defects  of  conformation,  such  as  narrow  back,  droopy 
rump,  etc.  Practice,  of  course,  enables  one  in  time  to  use 
the  hands  with  much  freedom,  without  detriment  to  the 
fleece,  but  inexperienced  persons  should  be  very  careful  not 
to  disturb  the  wool.  The  skin  of  a  sheep  should  be  of  a 
healthy  pink  color.  It  is  assumed  that  this  indicates  the 
animal  to  be  in  fine  physical  condition.  However,  some 
breeds  that  are  noted  feeders,  like  the  Shropshire  and  Oxford, 
have  dark-colored  skins  often  times,  and  so  it  maybe  said 
that  we  do  not  know  the  real  significance  of  skin  color. 
Yet  the  skin  in  any  case  should  look  clean  and  healthy,  and 
not  pale  and  bloodless. 

The  age  of  the  sheep  is  easily  determined  up  to  four  or 
five  years.  A  short  time  after  birth,  the  lamb  has  in  the 
front  of  the  lower  jaw,  eight  small,  narrow  teeth,  which  are 
commonly  called  the  milk  teeth.  The  front  part  of  the  upper 
jaw  has  no  teeth,  but  simply  a  tough,  fleshy  pad.  When 
about  12  months  old,  the  two  middle  milk  teeth  drop  out, 
and  two  larger,  permanent  teeth  occupy  the  place.  At 
about  24  months,  two  more  teeth  push  out  two  milk  teeth, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  two  that  came  in  at  12  months.  At 
36  months  two  more  come  in,  and  at  48  months  the  corner 
teeth  are  replaced  by  larger  permanent  ones.  It  is  easy  to 
tell  the  age  up  to  four  years.  After  that  one  must  do  some 
guessing.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  with  age  the  teeth 
usually  wear  down  or  break  away  in  the  middle  first;  old 
teeth  also  slant  forward  more  than  do  those  of  less  age.  It 
is  a  good  plan  always  to  examine  the  teeth  when  judging  or 
buying;  for  they  are  a  guide  to  age,  and  indicate  the  condi- 
tion for  feeding  and  future  usefulness. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


199 


A  systematic  inspection  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  take 
place  after  the  following  manner.  So  far  as  conformation 
is  concerned,  look  for  the  same  blocky,  fullness  of  form  that 
would  be  expected  in  a  fat  steer. 

1.  Survey  for  general  appearances  in  the  usual  manner  as 
previously  described  with  horses  and  cattle. 

2.  Rest  the  lower  jaw  of  the  sheep  in  the  left  hand,  and 
place  the  right  about  the  back  of  the  head  or  upper 
part  of  neck.    Then  raise  the  point  of  the  jaw  some- 
what, and  part  the  lips  gently  by  use  of  the  forefinger 
and  thumb  of  the  left 

hand.  This  enables  one 
to  inspect  the  front 
teeth,  which  are  found 
in  the  lower  jaw  only. 

3.  Inspect    muzzle,     face, 
eyes,  forehead,  and  ears. 

4.  View   the    breast    and 
position    of     fore   legs 
while  standing  in  front. 

5.  With   the    right    hand 
grasp  the  neck  and  feel 
for  its  size  and  attach- 
ment at  the  head. 

6.  Notice  the  union  of  neck  to  shoulders,  the  covering  of 
the  latter  and  the  position  of  the  blades. 

7.  Place  the  right  hand  on  the  back,  just  behind  the 
withers,  and  the  left  hand  between  the  legs,  on  the 
floor  of  the  chest.    This  gives  one  an  estimate  of  the 
depth  of  body. 

8.  Press  the  hands  on  the  crops  and  front  flanks,  to 
determine  thickness  of  chest. 


Fig.  122.  Feeling  for  covering  of 
flesh  about  the  tail-head.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


200 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


11 


9.  Press  firmly  along  the  back  with  one  hand,  the  fingers 
pointing  in  the  direction  of  the  neck,  to  determine  the 
covering  of  flesh.  With  both  hands  get  the  breadth 
and  covering  of  back  and  loin. 

10.  Place  the  fingers  of  the  hands  over  the  hips  and  note 
their  covering  and  distance  apart. 
After  examining  the  hips,  draw  the  hands  down  on  to 
the  rump,  and  feel  its  length,  breadth,  position,  and 
covering  of  flesh.    With  the  right  hand,  grasp  the 

point  of  rump  and  note 
the  width,  position,  and 
covering  of  root  of  tail. 
12.  Grasp  the  thigh,  usually 
termed  leg  of  mutton, 
with  the  hands,  the  left 
hand  with  open  thumb 
taking  in  one  side  of  the 
leg,  and  the  right  hand 
and  open  thumb  grasping 
the  other  side.  Thus  by 
freely  moving  the  hands 
about  the  leg,  one  may 
determine  fullness  of  hind  flank,  the  thickness  of 
muscle,  fullness  of  twist,  and  size  of  leg. 

13.  Place  the  left  hand  on  the  rump  at  tail  and  right  hand 
between  the  thighs  at  the  twist,  and  estimate  the 
depth  of  hind  quarters. 

14.  With  the  palms  of  the  hands  facing  each  other,  press 
against  the  outer  thigh,  to  determine  thickness  of 
hind  parts. 

15.  Step  back  a  few  feet  and  notice  position  of  hocks  and 
placing  of  hind  legs  and  feet. 

16.  From  one  side,  view  position  of  legs  and  feet. 


f  .123-    Examini?g  thJf  wid,th  of 

loin.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


201 


In  the  examination  of  fat  mutton  sheep,  no  great  emphasis 
is  placed  on  the  covering  and  kind  of  wool.  The  butcher 
values  the  wool,  but  in  buying,  it  receives  slight  attention. 
In  the  show  ring,  most  mutton  judges  examine  the  wool  of 
fat  sheep  scarcely  at  all.  If  judging  breeds,  then  the  wool 
must  be  examined  as  well  as  the  frame  and  covering  of  flesh. 
Seven  points  are  allowed  wool  in  the  following  score  card  for 
fat  sheep. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  SHEEP  OF  MUTTON  TYPE 


Scale  of  points 

Perfect 
score 

Stu- 
dent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 
score 

AGE     Number  of  permanent  front  teeth  .... 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 
WEIGHT,  score  according  to  age;  50  Ibs.  at  6    mos; 
90  Ibs  at  12  mos                                                    .    . 

6 

• 

FORM,  low  set,  compact,  broad  

8 

QUALITY,  bone  and  wool  fine 

8 

CONDITION,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh.     Note 
especially  loin,  back,  ribs,  root  of  tail  
HEAD  AND  NECK: 
MUZZLE,  fine;  mouth  of  good  size;  face  short  
EYES,  full,  bright;  forehead  broad;  ears  fine,  well  car- 
ried   
NECK,  thick,  short1  throat  smooth 

10 
2 

3 
2 

FORE  QUARTERS. 
BREAST  AND  BRISKET,  broad,  carried  well  forward  .    .  . 
SHOULDERS,  smooth,  well  covered,  compact  on  top  .    .  . 
CHEST,  wide,  deep;  large  girth   .  .              

3 
4 

8 

LEGS,  straight,  short  set  wide  apart  fine 

2 

BODY: 
BACK,  level,  wide,  well  fleshed;  loin  broad,   thickly 
fleshed  

15 

RIBS,  well  arched,  long,  smoothly  covered 

4 

FLANKS,  low,  thick  .  . 

2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 
HIPS,  well  placed,  smooth;  rump,  long,  level,  wide, 
smoothly  fleshed  
THIGHS,  wide  and  thick;  twist,  plump  and  meaty  

6 
8 
2 

WOOL: 
QUALITY,  fine,  soft,  uniform  over  body 

3 

QUANTITY,  dense,  even,  of  fair  length  for  age  
CONDITION,  bright,  clean,  soft,  fair  amount  of  oil  

3 

1 

Total  points  

100 

The  study  of  the  wool  or  the  fleece  on  the  body  of  the 
sheep   makes  it  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  differ- 


202  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

ences  in  this  product.  Wool  is  a  fiber,  much  like  common 
hair,  and  grows  in  the  same  manner.  On  the  outside  of  each 
wool  fiber  is  a  covering  of  transparent,  slightly  overlapping 
scales.  Their  position  has  often  been  compared  to  the  lap- 
ping of  shingles  on  the  roof  of  a  house.  The  center  of  the 
fiber  is  either  hollow  or  has  a  porous  core.  When  the  wool 
is  dyed,  the  dye  gets  under  the  scales  and  inside  the  tube  and 
is  absorbed.  True  hair  does  not  easily  take  a  dye.  Frequently 
hair  is  found  in  fleece  and  is  called  kemp.  Kempy  wool  is 
very  inferior  and  cannot  be  dyed.  Wools  differ  much  in 
length  and  diameter  of  fiber.  The  Merino  has  the  finest 
wool,  and  usually  the  larger  the  sheep  and  the  more  of  a  mut- 
ton type,  the  coarser  the  fiber.  The  fine  wool  is  more  com- 
pact over  the  body  than  the  coarse,  long  wool.  The  more 
dense  the  fleece,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more  it  will 
weigh.  A  compact  fleece  also  keeps  out  rain,  snow,  and  dirt 
better  than  an  open  one.  The  best  and  longest  wool  on  the 
body  is  found  over  the  shoulder  and  ribs.  The  back  and 
neck  wool  also  ranks  high.  That  on  the  belly  is  very  fair 
but  short,  while  that  on  the  thighs  is  the  poorest.  The 
finest  wools  are  the  shortest;  and  the  coarsest,  the  longest. 
The  fine  wool  of  the  Merino  is  used  in  making  choice  dress 
goods;  the  fleece  of  the  medium  sort,  such  as  the  Shropshire 
produces,  makes  fine  dress  goods  also ;  while  the  coarse,  long, 
or  braid  wools  are  used  in  making  horse  blankets,  carpets, 
etc.  Wool  should  be  of  uniform  quality  over  all  the  body. 
Quality  is  shown  in  its  fineness,  softness,  uniformity,  and 
color.  A  clear  white,  with  a  shading  of  creamy  color,  and 
with  considerable  of  what  is  called  crimp,  is  most  valued. 
The  crimp  in  wool  is  a  wavy  form  like  the  edge  of  a  very  fine- 
toothed  saw,  that  gives  elastic  strength  to  the  fiber.  The 
choicest  fine  and  medium  wools  show  more  or  less  of  this 
quality,  but  in  the  long,  coarse  wools,  the  crimp  is  long  and 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP  203 

wavy  and  often  entirely  lacking.     There  is  considerable 

oil  in  and  on  the  wool.      Most  of  this  comes  from  little  oil 

sacs,  or  glands,  in  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the  wool  fibers. 

The  oil  comes  from   the  glands 

and  gradually  works  up  to  the  end 

of  the  wool  fiber.     On  some  kinds 

of  sheep,  like  the  Merino,  the  oil 

accumulates  dust  and  dirt  until 

it   appears  black  and  dirty   on 

the  outside  of  the  fleece.     This 

oil  adds  to  the   quality  of  the 

WOOl,    but  it    is    not    desirable   to       Fig.  124.     A  Class  A  Merino  ram. 

have  it  in  large  amounts,  be- 
cause it  increases  the  shrinkage  when  the  fleece  is  scoured; 
that  is,  when  the  oil  and  dirt  are  removed.  Some  Merino 
fleeces  lose  65  per  cent  or  more  in  scouring,  while  a  Shrop- 
shire may  lose  but  45  per  cent,  a  very  important  difference, 
since  buyers  pay  for  wool  on  the  basis  of  its  weight  after 
scouring. 

SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  FINE-WOOL  SHEEP 

Three  distinct  classes  or  types  of  fine-wool  sheep  are 

recognized  today  in  the  United  States.    These  are  as  follows : 

CLASS  A,  with  heavy  folds  on  the  neck,  breast,  sides, 

rump,  and  thighs,  and  sometimes  over  the  back. 
CLASS  B,  with  a  few  folds  on  the  neck,  shoulder,  and 

thighs. 
CLASS  C,  with  no  folds,  except  in  a  slight  way  at  the 

brisket. 

The  present  tendency  is  to  breed  sheep  of  either  B  or  C 
class.  The  Delaine  Merino  and  Rambouillet  belong  to 
these  two  classes,  with  the  large  majority  of  individuals  in 


204 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Class  C.     The  sheep  in  Class  A  have  the  shortest,  finest, 
oiliest,  heaviest  fleece;  while  in  the  C  class  we  find  a  much 


Fig.  125.     Three  types  of  Merinos;     A  on  right,  C  on  left,  B  in  center. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

longer  fiber  and  decidedly  less  oil,  and  but  little  black  grease 
on  the  surface.  A  mutton  form  is  also  a  feature  of  the  Class 
C  sheep.  • 

The  method  of  judging  fine-wool  sheep  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  mutton  type.     In  the  case  of  classes 


Fig.  126.  Examining  character  of 
wool  of  thigh.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


Fig.  127.  'Inspecting  open  locks  on 
back  of  Merino.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


205 


A  and  B,  the  hands  are  scarcely  used,  excepting  to  part  amd 
inspect  the  wool  on  different  parts  of  the  body.  In  other 
words,  the  hand  serves  only  in  studying  the  fleece.  In 
examining  this,  the  locks  should  be  separated  on  the  shoulder, 
back,  and  thigh,  and  compared  in  length,  quantity,  and 
quality.  With  the  hands  one  may  feel  to  determine  the 
softness  and  density  of  covering.  Density  may  also  be  seen 
with  the  eye,  as  shown  in  the  covering  of  the  head,  the  belly, 
and  legs,  as  well  as  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  outside 
of  the  fleece.  When  wool  production  is  of  special  importance, 
examinations  of  the  bare  spots  on  the  belly  next  to  the  legs, 
and  the  general  under  cover- 
ing, are  essential.  This  re- 
quires placing  the  sheep  on 
the  rump.  This  position  al- 
lows not  only  the  wool  cov- 
ering to  be  studied,  but  the 
fullness  of  breast  and  the 
condition  of  the  feet  may 
also  be  noted.  In  the  exam- 
ination of  the  fine-wool  fleece, 
look  for  a  light-colored  oil 
that  should  be  evenly  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  fleece. 

Quite  often  the  oil  accumulates  in  spots  or  streaks, 
giving  an  uneven  character  to  oil  distribution.  This 
feature  is  most  likely  to  happen  with  fleeces  containing  a 
large  amount  of  oil. 

The  score  card  for  the  Delaine  or  Class  C  Merino  is  here- 
with given,  and  contains  the  scale  of  points  that  can  be  most 
commonly  used  with  fine-wool  sheep. 


Fig.    128.     Inspecting      belly     wool. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


206 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DELAINE  OR  CLASS  C  MERINO  SHEEP 


Scale  of  points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rec  ed 
score 


AGE Number  of  permanent  front  teeth 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

WEIGHT,  according  to  age:  30  Ibs.  six  mos.;  60  Ibs., 

twelve  mos 4 

FORM,  low,  compact,  symmetrical 9 

QUALITY,  bone  and  wool  fine,  hair  silky 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

MUZZLE,  fine,  of  good  size;  face  medium  length 2 

EYES,  bright,  easily  seen;  forehead  broad 2 

EARS,    medium  size,  set  well  apart,  coated  with  fine 

hair 2 

NECK,  short  on  top,  deep,  neatly  blending  head  and 

shoulders 3 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS,  well  placed;  chest  deep,  medium  thick". .  .  8 

BRISKET,  carried  well  forward,  with  some  breadth  and 

fold    or  apron 2 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong;  feet  good 4 

BODY: 

BACK,  straight,  medium  wide;  loin  wide 6 

RIBS,  well  sprung,  long;  flanks  low 4 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

HIPS,  smooth;  rump,  long,  level,  wide 

THIGHS,  ranging  from  muscular  to  plump 3 

LEGS,  straight,  short;  stifle  full;  feet  good 4 

WOOL: 

QUALITY,  fine,  soft,  clean,  even 10 

DENSITY,  compact  all  over  body 9 

LENGTH,  uniform,  at  least  2^  in.  for  12  mos 9 

OIL,  light  colored,  evenly  distributed 4 

Total    points 100 


Much  has  already  been  said  regarding  the  features  of 
sheep  involved  in  the  use  of  this  score  card.  In  judging  this 
type  one  must  consider  the  form  as  approaching  very  closely 
to  that  of  the  ideal  mutton  sheep.  The  fact  is,  the  C  type 
is  a  general-purpose  Merino,  with  mutton  an  important 
feature.  Yet  one  need  not  expect  to  find  as  much  thickness 
of  chest,  breadth  of  back,  fullness  of  quarter,  or  covering  of 
flesh,  as  with  a  Southdown  or  other  more  highly  developed 
mutton  breed. 

Things  to  emphasize  in  a  study  of  the  Class  C  type. 

1.  The  head  should  be  short  and  broad  at  forehead,  with 
a  slight  dish  of  face  in  the  ewes,  and  a  fullness  of  nose 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP  207 

with  the  rams.  Slight  wrinkles  often  occur  over  the 
nose,  which  should  be  covered  with  fine,  silky  hair. 
The  ears  also  should  have  a  covering  of  fine  hair.  Ex- 
cepting the  muzzle,  nose,  and  ears,  the  head  should 
be  well  covered  with  wool.  Bareness  of  the  face  is 
objectionable. 

2.  Favor  shortness  of  top  of  neck,  with  no  heavy  folds 
below. 

3.  The  tendency  is  towards  narrowness  at  the  withers  and 
fore  ribs.    Thickness  is  desirable  here,  with  not  too 
prominent  a  shoulder. 

4.  A  peaked,  droopy  rump  is  a  common  Merino  charac- 
teristic,  but  is  very  objectionable,   and    should  be 
severely  scored. 

5.  Look  for  a  thick  leg  of  mutton. 

6.  See  that  the  hocks  are  straight,  and  that  the  sheep 
stands  well  on  all  four  legs.     Defective  position  is 
frequent  here. 

7.  Merino  sheep  have  poorer  feet  than  any  other  breed, 
and  require  careful  attention.     The  toes  frequently 
grow  to  one  side  or  are  too  long,  and  the  horn  grows 
under  so  as  to  give  the  foot  a  bad  position. 

In  judging  breeding  sheep  of  any  class,  the  same  essential 
features  must  be  considered  that  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed. 

A  heavy  condition  of  flesh  is  objectionable,  a  muscular 
animal  in  good  health  being  most  desirable.  Sex  affects  the 
character  of  head  and  neck.  With  ewes,  some  length  and 
refinement  of  these  parts  must  prevail,  while  rams  must 
show  a  larger,  heavier,  bolder  type  of  face  and  eye  than  the 
ewes,  and  a  thick,  muscular  neck.  The  Merino  rams,  as  a 
rule,  have  heavy  horns  at  maturity,  while  the  females  are 


208  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

hornless.  With  Dorset  sheep,  the  ewes  have  a  slender,  one- 
curve  horn;  while  the  rams  have  a  heavier,  different  type  of 
horn,  of  spiral  form.  Hardly  as  much  compactness  is  sought 
with  breeding  sheep  as  with  those  for  fattening  purposes. 

IN  MAKING  A  STUDY  OF  SHEEP 

1.  How  should  the  animal  be  caught  and  held? 

2.  What  is  the  correct  method  of  examining  the  fleece? 

3.  How  do  you  use  the  hands  in  determining  covering  of  flesh? 

4.  Describe  the  method  of  inspecting  a  leg  of  mutton. 

5.  Where  on  the  body  are  the  different  grades  of  wool  found? 

6.  Describe  classes  A,  B,  and  C. 

7.  How  should  the  fine-wool  type  be  examined? 

8.  How  do  the  scales  of  points  of  mutton  and  fine-wool  sheep 
especially  differ? 

9.  What  kind  of  defects  of  the  feet  may  occur  with  the  Merino? 

10.  How  do  breeding  sheep  differ  from  others  in  character? 

SHEEP  ARE  INTERESTING  ANIMALS  TO  STUDY 

11.  Use  the  score  card  at  home  if  you  have  sheep. 

12.  Compare  several  animals  on  the  following  points: 

(a)  The  sex  character  shown  in  head  and  neck. 

(b)  Amount  and  quality  of  wool. 

(c)  Covering  of  flesh. 

(d)  Thickness  of  chest. 

(e)  Character  of  rump  and  hind  legs. 

13.  In  shearing  season,  judge  one  or  more  animals  before,  and 
again  after  shearing. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 

Two  distinct  market  types  of  hogs  exist  in  America,  the 
lard  and  the  bacon.  The  lard  type  prevails  in  all  those  sec- 
tions of  North  America  where  corn  is  an  important  farm 
crop.  In  fact,  the  bacon  type  is  produced  in  but  a  small  way 
in  this  country,  and  comparatively  few  are  found  in  che  mar- 
ket. Therefore  the  study  of  the  lard  type  should  receive 
most  attention.  There  are,  however,  with  each  type  or 
breed  of  hogs,  certain  things  in  common  to  be  especially 
desired.  Some  of  these  are  the  following. 

Quality  in  hogs,  as  in  all  other  animals,  is  of  great  impor- 
tance.   This  is  shown  in  the  condition  of  the  hair,  the  size 
of  bone,  and   the  develop- 
ment of  the  head.      There 
should  be  a  plentiful  coat 
of  hair  that  is  neither  very 
fine  nor  very  coarse.  If  too 
fine,  lack  of  constitutional 
vigor  is  indicated;    but    if 
the    reverse,     with    heavy 
bristles    along    the    back,      Fig  129    A    Chester    white    boar> 
then  a  coarse-grained,  low-  ^J™8  quality-   phot°graPh  b^  the 
grade  of  killing  hog  may  be 

expected.  The  quality  of  the  hair  is  an  index  to  the  quality 
of  bone.  Coarse  hair  naturally  goes  with  coarse  bone.  Among 
experienced  swine  breeders,  a  bone  of  fair  size,  yet  not  coarse, 
is  especially  desired.  The  well-fattened  hog  requires  strong 
bones  to  support  the  heavy  body  weight.  A  common  criti- 
cism today  is  that  of  too  small  a  bone  and  poor  support  of 


210 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  130.  A  Chester  White  boar  showing 
coarseness  of  hair.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


the  body.  For  this  reason,  many  breeders  and  feeders  are 
looking  for  a  hog  that  has  plenty  of  size  and  bone,  without 
coarseness.  In  passing  judgment  on  animals  of  this  class, 
one  must  be  mindful  to  secure  as  much  size  as  possible,  con- 
sistent with  quality.  A 
large  head  for  the  body, 
with  coarse,  thick  ears, 
also  indicates  inferior 
quality.  Many  young 
hogs  are  too  small  and 
refined  for  their  age,  and 
never  mature  into  ani- 
mals of  enough  feeding 
or  breeding  capacity. 
Therefore  excess  of  re- 
finement is  to  be  avoided. 

The  weight  and  size  of  the  hog  depend  naturally  on  the 
age  and  breeding.  In  the  general  market,  animals  that 
weigh  about  250  pounds  are  most  satisfactory  for  slaughter. 
The  average  weight  of  the  millions  of  hogs  sold  in  Chicago 
stock  yards  is  about  225  pounds.  However,  the  market 
demands  different  hogs  for  different  uses,  so  that  all  market 
hogs  are  sorted  somewhat  on  the  basis  of  weight,  condition, 
and  purpose.  For  this  reason,  a  criticism  regarding  weight 
should  take  into  consideration  the  special  purpose  involved. 
At  12  months  of  age,  when  fairly  well  fed,  a  fat  hog  should 
weigh  from  300  to  350  pounds. 

The  condition  of  the  hog  refers  to  its  covering  of  flesh. 
This  should  be  uniform  and  smooth,  no  matter  what  the  pur- 
pose of  the  animal.  One  common  defect,  more  especially  of 
the  lard  type,  is  the  prevalence  of  seams,  or  creases,  on  the 
body.  These  are  particularly  noticeable  about  the  neck  and 
the  fleshy  part  under  the  jaws,  known  as  the  jowl,  and 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE  211 

along  the  shoulders  and  sides.  These  creases  contain  more 
or  less  hair  that  is  hard  to  remove  after  scalding.  In  the 
larger  hog  killing  houses,  the  hair  is  removed  by  automatic 
scrapers.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  the  more  creases  there 
are  on  the  body,  the  more  difficult  it  will  be  to  remove  the 
hair  from  them.  In  such  cases  hand  work  is  necessary  to 
finish  the  job.  These  seams  are  also  an  indication  of  uneven 
fleshing. 

The  pasterns  of  the  hog  are 
often  very  weak  and  sloping. 
At  the  back  of  the  leg,  just 
above  the  pasterns,  are  two 
small  toes  that  are  known  as 
dew  claws.  When  the  pas- 
terns are  too  sloping,  these 
dew  claws  often  touch  the 
ground,  showing  a  weakness  of  leg.  In  the  days  when  hogs 
were  driven  overland  to  market,  it  was  very  important  that 
the  legs  should  be  strong,  capable  of  endurance,  and  weak 
pasterns  were  then  very  objectionable.  While  we  do  not 
drive  hogs  much  today,  it  is  still  necessary  in  many  locali- 
ties; and  whether  driven  or  not,  the  hog  should  stand  up 
strong  on  its  toes  on  short  pasterns,  as  an  evidence  of 
ability  to  carry  its  weight  well.  If  it  cannot  do  this,  then 
the  pasterns  are  weak. 

The  toes  of  the  hog  should  be  close  together,  and  point 
directly  forward.  Sometimes  they  are  weak  and  spread 
apart  and  do  not  have  a  strong  position.  Such  feet  are  an 
indication  of  lack  of  bone  and  too  much  forced  growth  of  the 
young  pig. 

A  score  card  for  the  fat  hog  follows,  which  may  be  used 
with  either  the  grade  or  pure-bred  animal. 


212 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  HOGS.  LARD  TYPE 


Scale  of  points 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

WEIGHT:     Score  according  to  age 4 

FORM,  deep,  broad,  low,  symmetrical 10 

QUALITY,  bone  strong,  hair  fine,  skin  healthy 10 

CONDITION,  deep,  firm,  even  covering  of  flesh 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

SNOUT,  not  coarse,  medium  long;  face  wide  between 

eyes;  cheeks  full  without  wrinkles 2 

EYES,  mild,  good  size,  not  hidden  by  fat;  ears  fine,  of 

medium  s>\ze,  neatly  attached 2 

JOWL,  smooth,  broad;  neck,  thick,  short 3 

FORE  QUARTERS:    • 

SHOULDER,   broad,   deep,    full,   smooth;   breast   wide, 

roomy 

LEGS,   straight,   short,   strong,    wide   apart;    pasterns 

short,  strong,  upright 4 

BODY: 

CHEST,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 3 

BACK,  slightly  arched,  very  broad,  thickly  and  evenly 

fleshed;  loin  wide,  thick 15 

SIDES,  deep,  not  too  long,  smooth 6 

Belly,  straight,  wide;  flank  full 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

RUMP,  same  width  as  back,  long,  level;  hams  heavily 

fleshed,  very  deep,  wide,  and  thick 12 

LEGS,   straight,   short,    strong,    wide   apart;   pasterns 

short,  strong,  straight,  upright 5 

Total  score ...  100 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 
score 


.  The  general  form  of  the  hog  may  be  studied  from  different 
points  of  view.  A  short  cane  or  stick  is  useful  to  change  the 
position  of  an  animal  in  order  to  observe  it  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. Hogs  tend  to  keep  the  head  close  to  the  ground,  and 
rarely  stand  with  the  four  legs  in  good  position  beneath  the 
body.  For  these  reasons  it  is  well  to  keep  animals  of  this 
class  more  or  less  in  motion  while  judging.  Width  of  back 
and  depth  of  rib  should  be  noted  from  over-head  or  from  one 
side,  while  a  fullness  of  both  front  and  hind  parts  should  be 
easily  seen  from  front  and  rear.  In  this  inspection  compact- 
ness of  form,  and  quality,  should  be  manifest.  One  may 
easily  determine  the  quality  by  eye  examination,  but  a  feel 
of  the  hair  will  reveal  marked  differences  in  quality,  that 
along  the  neck  and  front  part  of  the  spine  being  always  the 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


213 


coarsest.  While  condition  may  be  easily  seen  and  esti- 
mated by  the  eye,  if  one  will  press  with  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  along  on  the  back  and  sides,  a  better  idea  will  be 
had  of  the  depth  and  evenness  of  covering,  and  condition  of 
skin.  In  the  case  of  aged  boars,  there  will  be  noted  a  very 
thick,  coarse  development  of  skin  over  the  shoulders,  known 
as  the  " shields."  This  is  an 
inheritance  from  the  wild 
ancestors,  and  really  serves  as 
a  shield;  for,  when  fighting, 
pigs  strike  with  their  heads 
against  the  shoulders  of  the 
opponent.  The  tusks  of  the 
boar  cannot  easily  tear  through 
this  shield.  Yet  this  thick, 
heavy  covering  of  hide  is  very 
objectionable,  and  the  best 
show  animals  do  not  have  it. 
Symmetry  of  form  is  impor- 
tant; and  if  the  front  part  of 
the  body  is  thick  and  heavy, 
and  the  hind  part  narrow,  the 
form  certainly  will  not  be  well  Fi*' 
balanced. 

The  head  of  the  hog  varies  so  in  size  and  form,  according 
to  breed,  that  it  seems  best  to  emphasize  only  certain  fea- 
tures that  should  be  common  to  all  breeds  and  grades.  The 
large,  coarse  head  is  an  evidence  of  waste,  hence  buyers  pre- 
fer a  short  type  of  head,  indicating  smaller  loss  in  this  portion 
in  killing.  Even  with  the  long  headed  breeds,  refinement  is 
considered  important,  as  indicated  by  length  and  coarseness 
of  snout.  The  eyes  should  always  be  easily  seen,  and  pref- 
erably the  whites  of  the  eyes  to  some  extent.  The  eyes  of 


214 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  133.  .Pointing  at  the 
pasterns.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


the  hog  of  the  lard  type  tend  to  become  surrounded  by 
excessive  fat,  so  that  the  sight  is  very  poor.  The  ears  are 
good  indicators  of  quality.  They  should  be  easily  carried, 

and  not  be  heavy  and  coarse 
where  attached  to  the  head. 
None  of  the  lard-type  breeds 
naturally  have  coarse  ears. 

The  neck  of  the  hog  should  be 
reasonably  short  and  broad  on  top, 
and  blend  smoothly  into  the 
shoulders.  A  common  fault  is  a 
thin  neck,  fitting  roughly  in  the 
shoulders  which  stand  out  in  a 
prominent  manner  at  the  shoulder 
vein. 

The  jowl  of  the  hog  is  the 
thick,  fleshy  part  of  the  lower  jaw 
and  throat.  Sometimes  it  is  very 
large  and  round,  and  is  a  great 
mass  of  fat.  Often  deep,  hairy 
creases  occur  here.  The  jowl  can- 
not be  studied  to  advantage  unless 
it  is  both  seen  and  felt.  If  the 
animal  keeps  its  head  close  to  the 
ground,  the  jowl  cannot  be  thor- 
oughly examined.  The  best  form 
is  short,  smooth,  free  of  creases, 
and  reasonably  firm  to  the  touch. 
The  shoulders  of  the  hog  vary 
considerably.  The  tendency  is  for 
them  to  be  heavy  or  coarse,  and 
open  on  top,  the  blades  not  lying  back  in  close.  The  shoulders 
are  valuable  for  meat,  and  the  more  they  are  covered  with 


Fig.  134.  Pointing  at  the 
neck.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


Pointing  at  the 
shoulder.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


1R- 
lid 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


215 


flesh  the  better  they  are.  If  wide  on  top,  the  chest  below  will 
no  doubt  appear  narrow.  By  examining  from  over-head, 
and  then  from  in  front,  kneeling  somewhat,  the  relationship 
of  width  of  chest  to  position  of  shoulders  may  be  seen.  While 
the  breast  of  the  hog  does  not  appear  as  prominent  as  with 
other  animals,  on  account  of  the  low  carriage  of  the  head,  if 
the  shoulders  are  placed  right,  the  breast  will  be  wide  and  full 
and  the  front  legs  will  come  down  in  good  form.  By  means 
of  the  hand  one  can  feel  the  end  of  the  breast  bone,  which 
should  extend  at  least  beyond  the  legs.  Such  a  breast 
development  shows  good  constitution. 

The  back  of  the  hog  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts, 
for  here  the  butcher  secures  chops,  roasts,  and  lard.  The 
wider  and  better  condition  of 
back  and  loin,  the  more  high-class 
cuts  the  butcher  will  be  able  to 
obtain  from  the  carcass.  In  the 
older  and  larger  fat  hogs,  the  lay- 
er of  fat  over  the  back  is  very 
thick,  ranging  from  two  to  three 
inches.  Such  animals  are  fre- 
quently referred  to  in  the  market 
as  "fat  backs, "  and  long  strips  of 

the  fat  are  cut  from  this  part  and  rendered  into  lard.  A 
wide  back  is  an  indication  not  only  of  the  condition  of  flesh, 
but  also  of  the  capacity  below  for  the  vital  organs  and  the 
digestive  system.  Generally,  a  long  rib  and  large  chest  ca- 
pacity go  with  width  on  top.  In  inspecting  the  back,  as 
viewed  from  one  side,  emphasize  a  strong  carriage,  with 
a  slight  arching.  Young  pigs  frequently  have  a  depression 
behind  the  shoulders,  which  fills  up  on  fattening.  A  full, 
strong  development  here  is  desirable. 

The  sides  of  the  hog  should  be  fairly  deep  and  smooth, 


Fig.  136.  Feeling  for  back 
covering.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


216 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


and  uniformly  so  from  the  front  to  hind  flank.  This  part 
furnishes  the  bacon  cuts,  hence  a  smooth,  uniform  con- 
dition of  flesh  is  important.  Creases  very  commonly  occur 
along  the  upper  part  of  the  sides  and  give  a  bad  appearance  to 
the  body.  Often  one  may  easily  insert  the  fingers  in  these 

creases.  The  lard  type 
does  not  have  a  long  side, 
as  a  rule;  neither  is  it  quite 
flat,  as  viewed  from  one 
side.  The  form  tends  to 
be  somewhat  oval,  espe- 
cially with  hogs  with  Po- 
land-China, Duroc-Jersey, 
or  Chester  White  blood, 
consequently  the  upper 


Fig.  137. 

smooth  side  of  the  pig. 
courtesy  of  The  Farmer. 


shown    in    the 
Photograph  by 


part  of  the  side  projects 
some  beyond  the  lower 
portion.  Emphasize  also  smoothness  of  fleshing,  and  quality 
of  skin. 

The  belly  of  the  hog  should  suggest  as  little  waste  as 
possible.  A  paunchy  condition,  that  is,  a  round,  sleek  form, 
indicates  excess  offal.  A  clean,  straight  line,  as  viewed  from 
one  side,  with  full  flanks,  is  what  is  wanted.  Where  an 
excess  of  belly  occurs,  as  in  the  case  of  old  sows,  buyers  throw 
off  a  certain  amount  of  weight,  or  as  they  say  in  the  market, 
"dock"  the  animals. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  hog  are  very  important,  because 
they  include  the  hams.  The  hams  represent  a  high-priced 
and  heavy-weighing  part,  so  that  a  thick,  full  development  is 
here  sought.  Standing  behind  the  hog,  one  should  note  that 
the  width  is  carried  full,  from  the  hips  back  to  the  end  of  the 
body.  The  thighs  should  be  wide  spread  on  the  outside,  and 
very  thickly  muscled  between,  with  the  twist  extending  low 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE  217 

down  toward  the  hocks.  The  tail  attachment  should  not  be 
set  low.  Great  depth  of  hams  from  behind  is  most  desirable. 

From  one  side,  the  rump  should  be  long  on  top,  level 
rather  than  steep,  and  long  also  from  hip  to  hock.  A  very 
steep  rump  is  often  seen,  with  the  legs  carried  under  the  body, 
thus  furnishing  a  weak  support.  The  steep  rump  does  not 
allow  a  good  position  of  legs.  Side  or  rear  view  should 
show  a  very  meaty  ham,  somewhat  bulging  in  its  lower  part. 
Smoothness  of  covering  of  ham  is  important,  as  wrinkles  and 
uneven  condition  injure  the  value  in  the  meat  trade. 

The  legs  of  the  hog,  as  viewed  in  front,  at  one  side,  and 
from  behind,  should  be  short  and  straight,  and  not  coarse 
of  bone.  The  front  legs  sometimes  nearly  touch  at  the  knees, 
giving  what  is  termed  a  buck-kneed  effect.  This  usually 
accompanies  the  narrow  chest.  The  hind  legs  frequently  are 
close  together  at  the  hocks  with  the  feet  widely  spread  below 
the  body.  Such  a  position  usually  goes  with  a  narrow  thigh, 
or  ham.  Pasterns  and  feet  have  already  been  discussed  in 
this  chapter,  and  need  not  be  referred  to  again,  except  to 
emphasize  the  correct  position  of  these  parts  as  most  impor- 
tant in  supporting  a  heavy  body  weight. 

In  judging  breeding  stock  of  the  lard  type,  the  same 
general  features  are  to  be  considered,  making  exceptions  for 
sex  character  and  a  leaner  condition.  The  mature  male 
requires  a  head  showing  great  vigor  and  masculinity,  with 
a  strong  jaw,  prominent  tusks,  breadth  of  forehead,  a  strong 
neck,  and  some  thickness  of  shoulder.  Most  breeders  also 
prefer  breeding  stock  which  have  very  good  length,  and  are  not 
too  short  and  compact.  More  bone  is  looked  for  in  the  boar 
than  in  the  sow  or  fat  hog.  In  fact,  breeders  rarely  criticise 
a  boar  for  having  too  heavy  bone.  The  brood  sow  should 
show  good  size  and  length,  yet  have  a  strong,  well-supported 
back.  Depth  and  length  are  most  valued  qualities  in  her 


218 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


case,  as  these  indicate  large  reproductive  capacity.  Sows 
frequently  are  too  light  in  bone  for  their  weight,  and  this 
defect  should  be  noted.  The  sow  should  be  quiet,  yet  active, 
but  not  nervous  and  excitable.  An  irritable  sow  is  almost 
sure  to  make  a  bad  mother. 

THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  HOG 

The  bacon  type  of  hog  is  produced  in  comparatively 
small  numbers  in  the  United  States;  but  owing  to  the 
increased  demand  for  bacon,  no  doubt  more  hogs  of  this  sort 
will  be  bred  in  the  future. 

A  score  card  for  the  bacon  hog  gives  a  very  good  idea  of 
the  special  features  emphasized  in  this  type. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  BACON  HOGS. 


Scale  of  points 

Perfect 
score 

Stu- 
dent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 
score 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 
WEIGHT,  market  hogs  should  weigh  160-220  Ibs. 

ff 

10 

QUALITY,  hair  fine;  skin  smooth  and  free  of  wrinkles; 

10 

CONDITION,  well  co.vered  with  firm  flesh,  especially  on 

7 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 
SNOUT,  medium  long;  face,   broad  at  eyes  
EYES,  good  size,  bright;  ears,  medium  size,  not  coarse 
JOWL,  not  very  wide,    muscular,    smooth;    neck,  med- 

2 
2 

4 

FORE  QUARTERS: 
SHOULDERS,  smooth,  well  laid  in;  breast,  full  
LEGS,  medium  long,  straight,  well  placed,  not  coarse; 
pasterns  erect  and  straight  
BODY: 
BACK,  medium  width,  slight  arch  neck  to  tail;  loin 

9 
3 

10 

RIBS,  well  sprung,  long;   side,  long,  smooth,  medium 

12 

CHEST,  full,  even  with  shoulder;  flanks  full  and  low.  .  . 
BELLY,  firm,  trim,  thick,  not  flabby  or  shrunken  
HIND  QUARTERS: 

7 
3 

5 

HAMS,'  full,  not  flabby;  thigh  tapering  toward  hock, 

7 

LEGS,  medium  long,   hocks  well  set  apart,  straight, 

4 

Total  score  

100 

THE  JUDGING  OF  SVMNE  219 

Judging  the  bacon  hog  requires  keeping  in  mind  certain 
important  features  wherein  this  type  differs  from  the  lard 
hog.  Bacon  is  the  first  consideration.  This  comes  from  the 
sides;  therefore  the  side  that  is  longest  and  smoothest,  with 
fair  depth,  is  the  most  valuable.  But  bacon  must  not  be 
heavy  in  fat,  hence  the  condition  of  the  body  must  show  only 
a  moderate  amount  of  flesh.  For  these  reasons,  the  bacon 
hog  shows  a  comparatively  narrow  back,  but  considerable 
length  of  body.  Over  the  back  of  the  bacon  hog,  a  uniform 
depth  of  about  one  inch  of  fat  is  ample,  for  a  muscular  car- 
cass with  a  reasonable  amount  of  fat  is  what  is  desired. 

The  shoulder  of  the  bacon  hog 
should  be  smooth,  and  not  heavy 
like  the  lard  type,  but  should 
nicely  blend  into  the  body.  The 
thickness  between  the  shoulders 
is  not  great,  and  a  front  view  Fig.  iss.  A  bacon  barrow, 
shows  a  relatively  narrower  neck 
and  chest  and  longer  leg,  compared  with  the  lard  type. 

The  ham  of  the  bacon  hog  lacks  in  thickness,  yet  should 
be  long  on  top,  and  taper  off  into  a  lean  type,  with  no  great 
amount  of  fat.  From  a  side  view,  the  ham  cuts  away  more 
on  its  under  part;  while  from  behind,  the  thighs  are  thin  and 
are  well  split  up  between,  with  rather  a  shallow  twist. 

The  belly  of  the  bacon  hog  should  show  just  as  little  full- 
ness as  possible,  consistent  with  being  a  good  feeder.  Any 
evidence  of  paunchiness  or  thickness  here  is  objectionable. 
The  lower  part  of  the  body  line  should  be  smooth  and  trim, 
and  give  evidence  of  the  least  amount  of  offal. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  bacon  type  is  that  of  a 
narrow,  long-bodied,  smooth-sided,  long-legged  hog,  not 
too  fat  in  any  portion.  The  excessive  length  of  leg, 
which  often  prevails,  is  to  be  criticised;  otherwise  these 


220  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

features   of    conformation  are  very  desirable  and  should 
be  maintained. 

AMONG  OTHER  THINGS,  THINK  ABOUT 

1.  Quality  as  an  important  feature  of  the  hog. 

2.  The  occurrence  of  seams,  or  creases,  and  why  objectionable. 

3.  The  pasterns,  past  and  present. 

4.  The  five  features  most  highly  rated  in  the  scale  of  points. 

5.  The  "shield"  and  its  significance. 

6.  The  relation  of  breast  to  shoulder  and  constitution. 

7.  Where  the  most  important  "cuts"  are  found  in  the  carcass. 

8.  Differences  between  breeding  stock  and  that  for  the  butcher. 

9.  The  meaning  of  bacon  type. 

10.  Relation  of  bacon  form  to  offal. 

SOME  NEIGHBORHOOD  INVESTIGATIONS 

11.  Place  on  a  township  map  the  locations  of  market   feeders  of 
hogs. 

12.  Do  feeders  breed  or  purchase  the  stock  fed? 

13.  What  attention  is  given  to  quality  by  men  buying  hogs? 

14.  Does  the  lard  or  the  bacon  type  prevail  in  your  locality? 

15.  Bring  to  class  a  score-card  record  of  some  animal  in  the  home 
herd. 

16.  Organize  a  local  swine-judging  contest. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
HEREDITY:    ITS    MEANING    AND    INFLUENCE 

The  word  heredity  has  long  been  used  by  scientific  men 
when  discussing  the  important  subject  of  breeding  animals 
and  plants.  As  commonly  defined,  it  means  the  reproduction 
in  the  offspring  of  the  characteristics  of  the  parents.  How- 
ever, it  means  more  than  that,  because  the  parentage  of  an 
>  animal  or  plant  extends  farther  back  than  one  generation. 

The  degree  or  extent  that  characteristics  may  be  inherited 
from  parents,  grandparents,  and  more  distant  generations, 
cannot  be  absolutely  determined.  Yet,  that  animals  and 
plants  do  inherit  from  other  generations  than  the  parents, 
is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  In  fact /everything  found 
in  the  animal,  whether  physical  or  mental,  excepting  cer- 
tain diseases,  has  been  transmitted  through  previous  genera- 
tions. We  know  that  under  average  conditions  there  is  a 
certain  degree  of  resemblance  between  an  animal  and  its 
various  ancestors.  Yet  there  are  conditions  which  greatly 
affect  heredity.  Writing  on  "the  complex  nature  of  hered- 
ity,"  Davenport  says:*  "The  most  disconcerting  principle 
in  all  improvement  operations  lies  back  of  the  obvious  fact 
that  the  offspring  is  not  like  the  parent.  Having  two  parents, 
he  could  not  of  course  be  like  them  both.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  for  the  most  part  he  is  not  like  either  one  of  them, 
nor  yet  is  he  like  the  two  combined.  The  most  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  offspring  resembles  his  parents,  and  that  all 
his  characters  are  to  be  found  somewhere  in  his  parentage/' 

The  persistence  of  heredity  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  its  influence  on  the  offspring.  The  older  and  better 

*Domesticated  Animals  and  Plants,  1910,  p.  154. 


222 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


established  the  family,  the  more  uniform  and  certain  is  the 
transmission.  We  say  that  an  animal,  family,  breed,  or 
race  that  transmits  its  special  characteristics  with  much 
certainty,  is  prepotent.  This  word  suggests  power,  and 
really  means  superior  influence.  Wild  animals  and  birds 
represent  the  purest  and  most  prepotent  breeding.  They 
live  and  develop  under  conditions  that  are  most  natural  and 
uniform,  thus  resulting  in  the  least  change.  One  wild  fox 
differs  but  little  from  other  wild  foxes  of  the  same  kind,  in 
form,  color,  and  mental  traits.  In  the  opinion  of  most  men 
they  must  have  had  these  characters  for  a  great  length  of 
time.  The  same  thing  applies  to  any  other  one  species,  the 
product  of  wild  conditions. 

The  most  prepotent  domestic  animals  are  those  that  have 
been  bred  pure  for  long  generations.    A  breed  like  Short- 


Fig.  139.    A  fine  type  of  a  breeding  bull,  showing  masculinity  and  character. 
Photograph  By  courtesy  The  Farmer. 


HEREDITY;  ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE 


223 


horn  cattle,  the  pedigrees  of  which  can  be  traced  back  for  a 
hundred  years,  represents  a  comparatively  well-established 
type  and  character.  In  a  herd  of  these  cattle  we  should 
expect  to  find  the  typical  horn  and  head,  the  general  body 
form,  and  the  red,  white,  or  roan  color  so  universally  known. 
We  have  examples,  however,  of  old  breeds  that  have  not 


Fig.  140.  The  Holstein-Friesian  cow  Prilly  40082  at  13  years  old,  on  the 
left,  and  her  three  daughters,  Beauty  Pietertje,  Cleopatra  Gelsches,  and  Eliza 
Pietertje,  all  great  producers.  Photograph  by  courtesy  of  H.  A.  Moyer,  owner 
of  the  cows. 

been  developed  by  master  breeders,  and  consequently  a  lack 
of  individual  excellence  among  a  great  number  of  the  ani- 
mals is  found. 

The  importance  of  heredity  in  stock  breeding  has  long 
been  recognized.  The  men  who  have  been  most  noted  in  the 
development  of  each  of  the  great  breeds  have  agreed  that  the 
saying, " like  produces  like,"  contains  much  truth.  In  fact,  in 
breeding  operations  they  have  placed  a  premium  on  pre- 
potency and  uniformity  of  character.  Bates,  the  great  Short- 
horn breeder,  was  a  stickler  for  type  and  character.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  any  other  man  who  has  been  really 


224  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

successful  as  a  breeder.  If  a  man  wishes  to  produce  race 
horses,  he  must  use  race-horse  blood,  in  which  speed  has  been 
the  important  feature.  Great  records  are  being  made  among 
dairy  cattle  today,  and  certain  families  are  noted  producers. 
In  studying  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  modern 
dairy  cow,  one  will  find  that  the  inheritance  of  producing 
capacity  is  a  great  prepotent  feature.  Anyone  who  attempts 
to  establish  and  develop  a  herd  without  being  guided  by  such 
information  will  certainly  fail  in  his  purpose. 

The  importance  of  an  ideal  in  breeding  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. Men  who  have  done  much  to  assist  in  develop- 
ing breeds,  and  have  become  famous  in  this  work,  are  com- 
monly called  "master  breeders."  In  the  upbuilding  of  the 
Shorthorn,  the  Colling  Brothers,  Bates,  the  Booths,  and 
Cruickshank  were  all  known  as  great  constructive  breeders. 
These  men  had  their  ideals  or  standards,  and  bred  up  to 
them  as  closely  as  possible.  Two  men  start  out  with  herds 
of  cattle  of  equal  merit.  One  man  has  ideals  of  what  he 
should  do.  He  carefully  studies  his  cattle  and  the  laws  of 
heredity,  and  seeks  constantly  to  improve  his  herd.  At  the 
end  of  25  years  he  has  a  fine  herd,  that  is  a  marked  improve- 
ment over  his  foundation  stock,  and  from  which  he  derives 
much  praise-worthy  fame  and  substantial  profit.  The  other 
man  has  no  ideals  or  policy.  He  is  satisfied  with  things  as 
he  receives  them,  he  does  not  study  his  business,  and  as 
might  have  been  expected,  his  stock  becomes  inferior  and 
unprofitable,  he  gets  in  debt,  and  ends  possibly  in  bank- 
ruptcy. One  man  is  a  benefit  to  his  community,  the  other  is 
not,  yet  each  had  an  equal  chance  at  the  start. 

Certain  useful  and  valuable  forms  of  inheritance  exist 
among  the  improved  types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals,  and 
the  perpetuation  of  these  qualities  is  most  important,  if  one 
is  to  make  a  success  of  breeding.  Some  of  these  forms  that 


HEREDITY;  ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE          225 

directly  concern  the  stockman  are  the  following:  (a)  Color 
markings.  One  of  the  most  important  features  of  breed 
identification  is  the  color.  Some  breeds  possess  a  solid, 
uniform  color,  as  the  red  of  the  Red  Polled  cattle,  the  black 
of  the  Aberdeen  Angus,  the  white  of  the  Chester  White  and 
Large  Yorkshire  pigs,  and  the  red  of  the  Duroc-Jersey. 
Each  breed  has  its  standard  color  or  colors,  and  anything 
varying  from  this,  as  a  rule,  causes  disqualification,  (b) 
Milk  production.  The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  is  noted  for 


Fig.  141.     A  good  example  of  fecundity.     A  Duroc-Jersey  sow  and  litter  of  14 
pigs.     Photograph  by  courtesy  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 

the  large  milk  flow  of  the  cows.  No  other  breed  of  cows 
equal  these  in  heavy  flow  of  milk,  and  no  feature  does  more 
to  make  the  Holstein-Friesian  famous  than  that  of  milk 
production,  (c)  Fecundity  is  especially  a  hereditary  char- 
acter. Shropshire  sheep  have  been  noted  for  many  years  for 
the  large  percentage  of  twins  dropped  by  the  ewes.  The 
Large  Yorkshire  and  the  Tamworth  breeds  of  hogs  are  famous 
for  the  large  litters  farrowed  by  the  sows,  while  of  the  lard- 
type  breeds,  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  prominent  in  this  respect, 
(d)  Temperament.  As  a  rule,  animals  of  a  heavy,  fleshy 

15 — 


226  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

type  are  more  phlegmatic  and  less  nervous  than  those  of  more 
muscular  build.  Draft  horses,  beef  cattle,  mutton  sheep, 
and  lard  hogs  all  show  to  a  certain  extent  this  relationship 
of  form  to  temperament,  (e)  Speed  is  a  striking  feature  of  the 
horse  of  light  and  muscular  conformation.  A  study  of  the 
pedigrees  of  running  horses  prominent  today  will  in  many 
cases  show  lines  of  descent  from  the  Darley  Arabian,  with 
long  lists  of  celebrated  racers  in  between,  covering  the  period 
of  over  a  century.  In  the  same  way,  the  record  of  inherited 
speed  of  the  American  trotter  may  be  traced  in  a  most  inter- 
esting way,  from  the  present  back  some  75  years  to  old 
imported  Bellfounder,  the  sire  of  the  dam  of  Hambletonian 
10,  the  most  noted  speed  sire  in  the  history  of  America. 

Peculiar  or  interesting  characters  are  also  transmitted 
from  one  generation  to  another.  We  are  usually  most 
impressed  with  the  commonest  things  in  animal  inheritance, 
yet  there  are  remarkable  characteristics  that  are  well  worth 
attention,  and  such  as  demand  consideration  from  the 
thoughtful  stockman.  Usually  these  are  valued  as  breed 
features,  yet  in  themselves  they  have  no  useful  attributes. 
Some  examples  of  these  are  the  following :  The  solid  hoof  in 
the  hog  is  a  rare  occurrence,  except  with  one  breed,  the  Mule 
Foot.  This  characteristic  is  of  no  special  value,  but  it  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  much  publicity,  and  many  persons 
from  curiosity  have  purchased  specimens  of  Mule  Foot  hogs. 
A  pug-nosed,  dished  face  is  a  distinct  feature  of  the  Small 
Yorkshire  breed  of  swine.  Often  these  pigs  are  bred  so  that 
the  lower  jaw  projects  with  an  upward  curve  beyond  the 
short,  dished  upper  jaw,  seriously  affecting  ease  of  eating. 
Berkshire  breeders  in  America  in  late  years  have  also  had  a 
tendency  to  breed  these  very  short,  turned-up  faces.  Such 
heads  are  monstrosities,  in  the  same  class  with  those  of  bull 
dogs  and  Boston  terriers.  Five  toes  on  each  foot  are  found 


HEREDITY;  ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE          227 

on  the  Houdan  breed  of  chickens.  This  number  of  toes  com- 
monly occurs  on  all  good  specimens  of  this  variety  of  French 
fowls,  although  four  is  the  usual  number  with  most  other 
breeds. 

Latent  hereditary  characters  exist  in  all  animal  life.  By 
this  is  meant  characteristics  that  are  not  visible  in  any  form 
in  one  or  more  generations,  yet  have  occurred  in  the  past,  a*id 
may  again  appear  at  some  time  in  future.  During  the  past, 
students  of  heredity  have  called  such  occurrences  "atavism/' 
while  stockmen  have  been  in  the  habit  of  referring  to  them  as 
"throwing  back,"  or  "breeding  back."  For  example,  we 
have  a  case  of  a  family  of  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  which  is  a 
black  breed.  Very  unexpectedly  a  red  calf  is  dropped  in  a 
herd  where  not  a  red  animal  has  been  known.  Yet  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  history  of  this  herd  will  show  that  at  a  pre- 
vious period  there  was  a  red  ancestor.  This  red  color 
was  really  hereditary,  but  lay  dormant,  or  latent,  as  it  is 
termed,  for  some  generations,  and  then  cropped  out.  The 
stockman  now  calls  this  a  "sport."  Some  scientists  speak 
of  it  as  "mutation."  The  important  point,  however,  is  that 
this  character  really  was  inherited  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration, but  did  not  appear  until  certain  conditions  were 
favorable.  Many  similar  cases  might  be  cited  that  have 
caused  much  comment  among  stockmen.  In  this  connec- 
tion, it  maybe  noted  that  mutation  occurs  less  frequently  with 
old,  well-established  breeds  than  with  those  not  so  old,  and 
less  under  natural  than  under  artificial  conditions.  It  is  also 
important  to  remember  that  sometimes  mutation  results  in 
valuable  variations  from  the  parent  type.  Instances  have  oc- 
curred where  intelligent  breeders  have  recognized  the  value  of 
such  a  "sport,"  and  have  succeeded  in  reproducing  it  through 
successive  generations,  until  it  became  a  fixed  breed  feature. 
More  than  one  hornless  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep  have  been 


228 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


founded  by  a  polled  animal  unexpectedly  appearing  in  a 
horned  herd.  This  applies  especially  to  Polled  Jersey, 
Polled  Hereford,  and  Polled  Durham  cattle. 

Variation  in  animal  character  is  to  be  seen  on  every  hand. 
No  two  animals  are  exactly  alike.  In  a  family  of  the  same 
parentage  we  find  striking  differences.  Within  our  intimate 


Fig.  142.     Polled  Durham  bull,  The  Confessor  284217,  owned  by  J.  H.  Miller 
&  Sons,  of  Indiana.     Photograph  from  the  owners. 

acquaintance,  we  are  often  impressed  with  the  striking  dif- 
ferences between  members  of  the  same  family.  Among  our 
domestic  animals  differences  also  exist  in  no  small  degree, 
although  our  attention  may  not  be  attracted  by  them  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  human  family.  Yet  variation  is  a 
common  occurrence  in  all  life.  It  is  due  to  tLis  very  fact 
that  man  has  l3een  able  to  improve  and  develop  our  farm 
animals  to  their  present  stage  of  perfection.  Animal  life 


HEREDITY;  ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE  229 

is  plastic  and  more  or  less  susceptible  to  the  influence  of 
artificial  conditions  which  man  more  or  less  controls.  Food, 
habits,  surroundings,  the  care  of  man,  all  of  these  affect  the 
development  of  the  dumb  beast  in  a  notable  manner.  It 
should  be  the  business  of  the  stockman  to  study  these  con- 
ditions and  make  use  of  them  to  the  material  improvement 
of  his  own  herd. 

IF  YOU  INHERIT  A  GOOD  MEMORY,  YOU  SHOULD  KNOW 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  word  heredity. 

2.  Under  what  conditions  prepotency  is  best  seen. 

3.  Why  a  knowledge  of  heredity  is  important  in  stock  breeding. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  master  breeders. 

5.  The  value  of  color  markings  in  breed  inheritance. 

6.  The  relation  of  conformation  and  inherited  speed. 

7.  Some  peculiar  forms  of  heredity. 

8.  The  possible  value  of  mutation. 

9.  What  conditions  influence  variation. 

FIND  EXAMPLES  OF  INTERESTING  CASES  OF  HEREDITY 

10.  Report  on  the  best  examples  of  heredity  extending  over  at 
least  two  generations,  in  which  very  similar  characters  appear. 

11.  What  is  the  most  prepotent  animal  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
why? 

12.  Report  on  any  herd  showing  high  ideals  of  the  owner. 

13.  Interesting  cases  of  fecundity  among  brood  sows  are  not  diffi- 
cult to  find.    Look  some  up  and  report  upon  them. 

14.  What  is  the  most  interesting  and  peculiar  case  of  heredity 
within  your  knowledge? 

15.  Find  a  case  of  atavism  worth  reporting. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 

The  principle  of  selection  involves  some  method  by  which 
one  or  more  animals  are  selected  for  specific  purposes.  The 
scientist  recognizes  two  great  classes  of  selection,  one, 
natural;  the  other,  artificial. 

Natural  selection  is  the  process  in  operation  among  wild 
animals  by  which  individuals  choose  or  select  their  mates. 
Force  is  an  important  medium  under  such  circumstances. 
A  good  example  of  the  application  of  natural  selection  is 
found  with  the  deer.  The  males  fight  among  themselves 
to  determine  which  shall  be  master  of  the  herd,  and  the 
strongest,  most  masterful  secures  the  leadership.  This  is 
what  is  sometimes  termed  "the  survival  of  the  fittest." 
Among  all  wild  animals  a  similar  method  of  selection  exists 
to  a  more  or  less  degree.  This  system  weeds  out  the  weakly, 
inferior  animals  and  promotes  the  vitality  of  the  race.  Refer- 
ring to  this  subject,  Henry  Drummond  states:*  "The 
object  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  is  to  produce  fitness,  and 
it  does  so,  both  negatively  and  positively.  In  the  first  place 
it  produces  fitness  by  killing  off  the  unfit.  Without  the 
rigorous  weeding  out  of  the  imperfect  the  progress  of  the 
world  had  not  been  possible.  If  fit  and  unfit  indiscriminately 
had  been  allowed  to  live  and  reproduce  their  kind,  every 
improvement  which  any  individual  might  acquire  would  be 
degraded  to  the  common  level  in  the  course  of  a  few  genera- 
tions. Progress  can  only  start  by  one  or  two  individuals 
shooting  ahead  of  their  species,  and  their  life  gain  can  only 

*The  Ascent  of  Man. 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  231 

be  conserved  by  their  being  shut  off  from  their  species,  or 
by  their  species  being  shut  off  from  them."  Again  he  says: 
"If  a  given  number  must  die,  that  number  must  be  singled 
out  upon  some  principle,  and  we  cannot  quarrel  with  the 
principle  in  physical  nature  which  condemns  to  death  the 
worst."  Natural  selection  therefore  represents  a  progressive 
development,  with  each  succeeding  generation  somewhat 
stronger  and  better  bred  for  meeting  the  requirements  of 
existence.  An  especially  interesting  phase  of  natural 
selection  is,  that  through  it  the  species  is  developed  so  as  to  be 
best  adapted  to  its  purpose  and  condition  of  living. 

Artificial  selection  involves  the  introduction  of  man.  He 
controls  the  matter  of  .selection,  and  thereby  is  able  to  cause 
the  animal  to  vary  more  or  less  from  the  parent  type.  In 
the  earliest  times,  no  doubt  man  exercised  some  control  over 
the  animals  that  he  found  useful,  and  caused  changes  in 
their  development.  Thus  man's  ability  to  affect  the  pur- 
pose and  value  of  dumb  animals  must  have  appeared  evident 
to  him  long  ago.  The  famous  sculptures  of  Egypt  and 
Nineveh,  dating  back  thousands  of  years,  show  that  domestic 
animals  at  that  time  must  have  been  improved  by  man 
through  the  practice  of  selection.  The  Bible  has  been 
repeatedly  quoted  by  writers  on  heredity,  to  show  that  the 
influence  of  selection  was  recognized  prior  to  the  time  of 
Christ,  as  expressed  in  Genesis.  Early  writers  like  Plato, 
Pliny,  and  Columella,  all  refer  to  the  improvement  of  live 
stock  by  selection.  All  through  the  intervening  centuries 
up  to  the  present  time,  interesting  references  occur  in  history 
of  animal  improvement  being  sought  through  selection. 

Methodical  selection  is"  a  term  used  by  Darwin  to  express 
the  more  systematic  artificial  process.  In  his  most  interest- 
ing work  on  " Animals  and  Plants  Under  Domestication," 
jbe  presents  much  evidence  to  show  the  practical  application 


232  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

of  selection,  and  especially  how  by  a  methodical,  carefully- 
planned  system,  remarkable  results  have  been  secured. 
Referring  to  this  method,  Darwin  says:  "Few  persons, 
except  breeders,  are  aware  of  the  systematic  care  taken  in 
selecting  animals,  and  of  the  necessity  of  having  a  clear  and 
almost  prophetic  vision  into  futurity.  Lord  Spencer's  skill 
and  judgment  were  well  known;  and  he  writes:  'It  is  there- 
fore very  desirable,  before  any  man  commences  to  breed 
either  cattle  or  sheep,  that  he  should  make  up  his  mind  to  the 
shape  and  qualities  he  wishes  to  obtain,  and  steadily  pursue 
this  object/  Lord  Somerville,  in  speaking  of  the  marvelous 


Fig.  143.     The  first  prize  herd  of  Shorthorns,  Ringmaster  at  head,  the  result  of 
a  policy  in  selection.     Photograph  by  courtesy  The  Farmer. 

improvement  of  the  New  Leicester  sheep,  effected  by  Bake- 
well  and  his  successors,  says :  'It  would  seem  as  if  they  had 
drawn  a  perfect  form,  and  then  given  it  life.' J 

In  connection  with  the  practice  of  selection,  it  is  important 
that  the  breeder  keep  in  view  certain  necessary  things,  if  he 
is  to  be  successful  in  accomplishing  his  purpose. 

A  policy  in  selection  is  essential.  Whether  one  is  to  breed 
one  kind  of  live  stock  or  another-,  he  should  not  only  have 
carefully  considered  plans,  but  should  hold  to  them.  One  of 
the  great  reasons  for  non-success  on  the  part  of  many  breeders 
is  the  lack  of  a  definite,  well-founded  policy.  A  man  starts 


SELECTION  AND  IT8  IMPORTANCE  233 

to  breeding  beef  cattle,  and  after  a  time  concludes  he  pre- 
fers a  dairy  breed;  so  he  disposes  of  his  beef  stock.  Thus 
years  of  effort  may  be  upset  in  a  few  days.  More  than  one 
man  in  a  vainglorious  way  has  stated  that  he  has  tried  all 
the  breeds  of  this  or  that  kind  of  stock,  and  that  he  knows  all 
about  them.  Such  a  statement  is  ample  evidence  of  super- 
ficial knowledge  and  policy. 

Intelligent  selection  requires  severe  culling  of  the  herd. 
Men  improve  the  average  of  the  herd  through  the  removal  of 
the  more  undesirable  animals.  Some  persons,  however,  find 
it  difficult  to  do  this,  on  the  plea  that  they  cannot  afford  it, 
or  that  the  misfits  will  do  for  the  present.  Yet  the  more 
uniform  the  excellence  of  the  animals  in  a  group,  the  more 
profitable  the  results  to  be  secured.  George  A.  Brown 
refers*  to  a  practice  followed  in  many  parts  of  Australia, 
of  employing  an  expert  to  cull  and  select  the  breeders  in 
Merino  stud  flocks.  Comment  is  made  that,  when  the 
expert  really  understands  his  business,  this  plan  has  its 
advantages.  A  young  stockman,  by  closely  watching  the 
methods  of  the  expert,  will  gain  a  better  insight  into  the  busi- 
ness of  selection  for  stud  breeding  than  he  could  by  any 
other  means. 

Selection  as  a  means  of  securing  desirable  characters  is 
one  of  the  most  easily  applied  practices.  It  is  common  to 
find  certain  recognized  weaknesses  or  defects  within  a  herd. 
It  may  be  shown,  for  example,  in  a  heavy,  plain  shoulder, 
or  a  weak,  narrow  back  or  an  inferior  hind  quarter.  The 
necessary  thing  to  do  under  such  circumstances  is  first,  to 
secure  a  sire  that  is  especially  strong  where  the  females  are 
weak;  and  secondly,  to  dispose  as  rapidly  as  possible  of  the 
animals  that  possess  these  deficiencies  in  the  most  striking 
degree.  In  the  most  progressive  live-stock  communities, 

*Studies  in  Stock  Breeding,  1902,  page  354. 


234  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

high-class  breeding  stock  is  greatly  valued.  In  fact,  we  have 
no  way  of  accurately  measuring  the  value  of  a  great,  pre- 
potent sire.  It  is  understood  by  those  familiar  with  many 
British  flocks  and  herds  that  the  best  breeding  animals  cannot 
be  purchased;  they  are  not  for  sale.  It  is  an  old  story  that 
Edwin  Hammond  refused  an  enormous  sum  for  the  famous 
Merino  ram  Gold  Drop,  his  reason  being  that  he  could  not  af- 
ford to  sell  his  best  ram  at  any  price.  Brown  states  that  on  one 


Fig.  144.     These  cows  were  the  result  of  selection  for  butter-fat  production. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

occasion  a  wealthy  Tasmanian  sheep  breeder  offered  one  of 
the  most  skillful  island  stud  owners  $500  each  for  the  pick  of 
a  score  of  ewes  from  his  stud,  and  the  offer  was  refused. 
These  animals  transmitted  most  valuable  qualities  to  future 
generations,  in  no  uncertain  manner,  the  perpetuation  of 
which  qualities  was  of  vital  importance  to  the  owner.  At  the 
present  time  great  interest  is  shown  in  dairy  cattle,  and  the 
marked  improvement  in  producing  capacity  in  many  herds 
is  evident  through  the  use  of  sires  that  come  from  dams  and 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  235 

families  notable  for  milk  or  butter-fat  records.  Suppose  a 
man  desires  to  purchase  a  bull.  Would  it  not  be  a  fine  invest- 
ment to  secure  one  from  ancestry  that  would  result  in  a  herd 
of  cows  that  would  yield  400  pounds  of  butter-fat,  each,  per 
year,  as  compared  with  a  sire  producing  cows  giving  only  200 
pounds  of  butter-fat?  Think  of  the  difference  in  the  final 
gain  to  the  man  and  to  the  breed !  One  thing  should  be  kept 
in  mind  in  the  effort  to  secure  and  hold  desirable  qualities, 
and  that  is  not  to  breed  with  a  narrow,  one-sided  policy, 
remembering  that  the  greatest  general  perfection  of  form 
and  function  should  always  be  the  final  object  of  the  breeder. 
Selection  and  environment  have  much  in  common.  By 
environment  is  meant  the  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  shelter, 
etc.  In  very  recent  years  the  word  "genetics"  has  come 
into  use,  and  will  no  doubt  become  more  common  in  the 
future.  It  refers  to  breeding  scientifically,  depending  upon 
hereditary  transmission,  without  regard  to  environment. 
When  starting  in  the  business  of  breeding,  it  is  very  generally 
considered  important  that  animals  be  selected  that  are  suited 
to  the  special  conditions  under  which  they  must  live.  While 
it  is  true  that  domestic  animals  are  adaptable,  the  different 
breeds  are  not  equally  so.  Some,  as  for  example,  the  Short- 
horn, seem  to  thrive  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  Others 
are  much  less  suited  to  change.  Large,  heavy  animals  are 
better  adapted  to  the  lower  lying  lands  and  richer  pastures; 
while  the  lighter,  smaller  type  thrives  in  the  hill  country, 
where  herbage  is  not  so  abundant.  There  are  cases  where 
men  have  persistently  held  to  a  breed  under  adverse  condi- 
tions, and  have  selected  until  an  adjustment  was  reached 
between  the  animal  and  the  climate  and  the  breeder.  Brown 
states  that  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  achieved  by  the  hus- 
bandman, with  the  aid  of  selection,  has  been  in  stocking  the 
"great  thirst  land  of  central  Australia "  with  Merino  sheep. 


236  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

When  first  taken  to  that  country,  they  deteriorated  greatly. 
The  wool  was  reduced  to  less  than  half  the  original  length, 
and  became  dry,  very  brittle,  and  open.  Many  sheep 
farmers  gave  up  the  attempt  to  produce  the  Merino  as  hope- 
less, but  others  persevered,  and  finally  succeeded  in  produc- 
ing sheep  with  fine  frames  and  splendid  fleeces.  If  one  will 
carefully  study  breed  distribution  in  America,  he  will  find 
that  in  some  localities  certain  breeds  are  selected  in  preference 
to  all  others.  For  illustration,  in  the  southern  states  Jersey 
cattle  and  Berkshire  hogs  are  kept  in  preference  to  all  other 
breeds.  In  warm  climates  a  dark-skinned  animal  suffers 
from  the  heat  less,  and  consequently  hogs  and  cattle  with 
dark  skins  prevail.  Wisdom  would  justify  no  other  policy 
of  selection.  Feeding  is  also  an  important  factor  in  hered- 
itary transmission.  It  is  amply  demonstrated  that  animals 
transferred  from  conditions  of  food  scarcity  to  an  environ- 
ment of  abundance,  through  successive  generations  take  on 
an  increase  in  size.  The  Shetland  pony  on  its  native  isles, 
subject  to  cold  and  more  or  less  starvation,  is  a  smaller, 
more  inferior  animal  than  that  of  the  same  ancestry,  but 
which  has  passed  through  several  generations  in  the  prairie 
country  of  America,  where  food  is  most  abundant.  Men 
may  buy  fine  animals  for  their  herds,  but  unless  properly 
fed  and  cared  for,  depreciation  is  sure  to  follow  from  genera- 
tion to  generation. 

Uniformity  in  type  of  foundation  stock  should  be  most 
carefully  considered.  It  is  a  common  method  for  young  men 
starting  herds,  to  buy  females  without  regard  to  uniformity 
of  type.  The  result  is  that  herds  thus  begun  do  not  attain 
the  standing  they  should,  because  of  variation  in  the  off- 
spring, due  to  the  lack  of  methodical  selection  at  the  start. 
One  might  far  better  begin  with  three  females  of  uniform  type 
and  excellence,  than  with  a  much  larger  number  of  no  uni- 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 


237 


formity.    The  final  outcome  with  the  three  would  certainly 
encourage  observers  to  pursue  a  similar  method. 

A  knowledge  of  breed  character  is  requisite  if  one  is  to 
become  an  intelligent  breeder.  All  of  our  farm  animals 
may  be  grouped  into  breeds,  crosses,  grades,  or  scrubs. 
Any  improvement  made  must  come  through  the  breed,  or 
pure-bred  line.  Our  breeds  are  the  outcome  of  systematic 
selection  and  improvement.  Present-day  standards  are 
undoubtedly  higher  than  ever,  and  breeders  demand  more 
and  more  merit  in  breed  representatives.  This  being  so,  it  is 
highly  important  that  the  stockman  should  be  quite  familiar 
with  the  scale  of  points,  moulding  all  the  desirable  qualities 
into  an  ideal  worthy  of  the  breed,  and  then  endeavor  to 

produce  animals  that 
come  nearest  to  that 
ideal.  Such  knowledge 
also  calls  for  a  keen  dis- 
crimination in  selecting 
the  breeding  stock  by 
which  the  herd  is  main- 
tained. 

Rational  selection  is 
a  thing  greatly  to  be 
desired  on  the  part  of 
breeders.  Too  many  persons  are  influenced  in  their  se- 
lection by  passing  fads.  In  the  past,  men  have  insisted 
on  maintaining  herds  of  red  Shorthorns,  or  solid-colored 
Jerseys,  allowing  these  fancy  points  to  obscure  more  impor- 
tant ones.  Hogs  have  been  bred  with  such  extreme  dish  of 
head  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  eat  in  a  natural 
way.  Sheep  have  been  bred  with  such  heavy  coverings  of 
wool  over  the  face  as  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  eyes.  These 
features  should  never  obscure  the  vision  of  the  breeder. 


Fig.  145.  Shropshire  sheep  heavily  cov- 
er ed  with  wool  over  the  head.  Photograph 
by  the  author. 


238  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Rational  selection  requires  putting  a  premium  on  consti- 
tutional vigor,  size,  and  quality,  and  then  wisely  giving 
fancy  characteristics  of  color,  head,  or  covering  of  wool 
secondary  consideration.  It  is  not  meant  that  these  fea- 
tures should  be  ignored.  In  fact,  they  serve  in  part  as 
factors  in  breed  identity,  but  so  also  do  other  things. 
Nothing  is  so  essential  as  vigorous  constitution,  and  rational 
selection  would  naturally  place  a  premium  on  this.  One 
may  strike  the  happy  medium  on  fancy  points  without  detri- 
ment to  his  herd,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  desirable 
qualities,  thereby  attracting  buyers.  But  what  could  be 
more  unwise  than  to  neglect  constitution  in  order  to  maintain 
some  special  color  character?  Yet  more  than  one  breeder 
has  been  guilty  of  this. 

The  selection  of  the  pedigree.  One  cannot  practice 
selection  and  ignore  pedigree.  Persons  familiar  with  lines 
of  family  breeding  recognize  that  more  merit  exists  in  some 
than  in  others.  The  men  who  have  been  most  successful  as 
breeders  have  always  refrained  from  purchasing  animals  the 
pedigrees  of  which  showed  undesirable  ancestry.  Auction 
sales  of  live  stock  bring  out  various  interesting  features, 
chief  among  which  is  the  relatively  higher  price  paid  for 
animals  of  recognized  satisfactory  pedigree.  While  it  is 
true  that  in  the  past  many  animals  have  sold  at  high  prices, 
largely  on  the  basis  of  pedigree  and  without  merit  otherwise, 
the  fact  remains  that  as  a  general  rule,  a  combination  of 
individual  excellence  and  meritorious  pedigree  brings  the 
highest  price.  The  man  who  combines  the  capable  judge 
and  wise  interpreter  of  pedigree  is  qualified  to  select  to  the 
best  advantage. 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  239 

A  SAMPLE  SELECTION  OF  QUESTIONS  ON  SELECTION 

1.  What  is  natural  selection? 

2.  What  did  Darwin  say  about  methodical  selection? 

3.  What  is  the  Australian  method  of  culling  and  selecting  sheep? 

4.  How  have  great  sires  been  valued  by  their  owners? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  animal  development  to  soil  and  climate? 

6.  Why  aim  for  uniformity  of  type  in  founding  a  herd? 

7.  What  is  rational  selection?    Illustrate. 

8.  How  important  is  constitution? 

9.  What  part  should  pedigree  play  in  buying  breeding  animals? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  SELECTION 

10.  Make  a  report  on  Charles  Darwin  as  a  student  of  selection. 

11.  What  breeders  that  you  know  practice    methodical  selection? 

12.  Are  there  any  sires  in  your  county  highly  valued  by  their 
owners?    If  so,  what  are  they,  their  value,  and  why  so  valued? 

13.  Give  local  examples  of  dairy  cows  having  official  records  of 
milk  or  butter-fat  production.    Are  these  the  result  of  careful  selection? 


CHAPTER  XV 
PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 

The  pedigree  of  an  animal  shows  the  consecutive  rela- 
tionship of  an  animal  to  its  ancestors.  Of  some  animals  we 
say  that  they  are  pure-breds,  while  others  are  known  as 
scrubs  or  mongrels.  The  pure-bred  has  a  known  pedigree, 
while  the  scrub  has  not.  Men  have  developed  herds  of 
animals  of  similar  character  and  ancestry  from  which  they 
uniformly  reproduce  the  parent  type,  and  have  kept 
careful  records  of  the  breeding.  Such  animals  form  a 
breed.  To  be  pure  bred,  an  animal  must  show  in  its  pedi- 
gree that  it  traces  back  wholly  within  the  blood  lines 
from  which  the  stock  originated.  If  an  animal  is  not  pure 
bred,  it  may  combine  in  its  pedigree  widely  differing  blood 
lines  that  are  more  or  less  out  of  harmony  with  one  another. 

A  cross-bred  animal  has  a  pedigree  that  on  the  sire's  side 
is  of  one  breed,  and  of  another  on  the  dam's  side.  As  a  rule, 
cross  breeding  is  very  undesirable,  and  should  be  carried  only 
one  generation,  and  then  for  the  production  of  feeding-stock 
only. 

A  grade  animal,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  has  a  pure- 
bred sire,  but  is  out  of  a  dam  that  is  not  pure-bred.  One 
often  hears  the  expression  high  grade,  which  means  that  the 
animal  referred  to  is  by  a  pure-bred  sire,  and  out  of  a  dam 
that  contains  much  pure  blood  stock.  A  high  grade  herd  of 
Herefords  would  consist  of  a  collection  of  animals  that 
started  with  just  common  or  scrub  breeding  stock,  but  in 
which  for  some  generations  none  but  pure-bred  males  were 
used  as  sires.  Thus  a  systematic  improvement  of  the  herd 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 


241 


would   be   made.     The   degree   of  improvement    may   be 
expressed  as  follows: 

1st  generation  =  Pure  sire,  scrub  dam.  The  offspring  =     ^ 
2nd          "        =    "      "       1A  blood  dam.   "         "          =--     % 

3rd  "        =    "      "      M      "         "  "         "          =    % 

/lfV»  "  ;  «  It  I/  «  <(  It  <*  ^^4fi 

5th  "        =    "      "    15/io      "        "  "         "          =% 

6th  "         =    "       "    81,fe      "         "  "          "          =6%4 


blood 

« 
« 


Fig.  146.     A  herd   of  grade  feeder  cattle  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  in  time  a  herd  may  become  practi- 
cally pure-bred,  although  one  will  not  be  able  to  register  this 
high  grade  stock  in  most  breed  registry  associations.  Yet  all 
pedigrees  really  start  from  grade  ancestry. 

The  bracket  form  of  constructing  a  pedigree  shows  the 
family  relationship  by  means  of  a  series  of  brackets,  after  the 
following  manner.  This  is  the  most  common  form  in  use. 


DUROC-JERSEY  BOAR, 

Orion  Chief  13333 

16— 


f  Orion  II,  6539. 
[Mabel  22518 


fOrion  4901 
\Ohio  Anna  10068 
I  Longfellow  6815 
\Agnes  X  15250 


242  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

In  making  this  form  of  pedigree,  the  names  of  the  males 
are  at  the  top  of  each  bracket,  and  the  females  at  the  bottom. 
This  style  may  be  extended  from  generation  to  generation, 
the  number  of  ancestors  doubling  each  remove  to  the  right. 
This  pedigree  shows  that  Orion  Chief,  a  noted  Duroc-Jersey, 
had  Orion  II  for  sire  and  Mabel  for  dam.  Going  back 
another  generation,  it  will  be  noted  that  in  the  line  of  male 
descent,  his  grandsire  was  Orion  and  his  grandam,  Ohio  Anna. 
On  the  dam's  side,  Longfellow  is  his  grandsire  and  Agnes  X, 
the  grandam.  If  we  now  go  back  another  generation  we 
have  four  great-grandsires  and  four  great-grandams.  This 
form  of  pedigree  shows  the  entire  direct  ancestry,  and  is  the 
only  one  generally  used  by  stockmen  to  show  the  breeding 
of  an  animal. 

The  line  of  female  descent  pedigree  is  another  method 
of  showing  ancestry.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing Shorthorn  pedigree: 

IMP.  VILLAGER  295884. 

Roan;  calved  March  1,  1906.     Bred  by  C.  H.  Jolliffe,  Darlington,  England. 

DAMS  BREEDERS  OF  DAMS  SIRES  BREEDERS  OF  SIRES 

Village  Beau  295883       Wm.  Duthie 

Rosy  Cloud  (Vol.  50E)  C.  H.  Jolliffe  Chorister  295882  Wm.  Duthie 

Rosy  Dawn C.  H.  Jolliffe  Misty  Morning  153603  Wm.  Duthie 

Rose  Blossom S.  Campbell  Clan  Alpine  130852         Messrs.    Nelson 

Roselinty S.  Campbell  Gravesend  98361  A.  Cruickshank 

Rosemary S.  Campbell  Banner  Bearer  96034       Wm.  Duthie 

Roan  Rosebud S.  Campbell  Borough  Member  64872  J.  Bowman 

Rosebud S.  Campbell  Sir  Christopher  (22895)  R.  Booth 

Rosebud  1st S.Campbell  Dipthong  (17681)  A.  Cruickshank 

Rosebud S.Campbell  Scarlet  Velvet  (16916)     A.  Cruickshank 

This  pedigree  shows  the  bull  Villager  to  be  sired  by  Vil- 
lage Beau,  a  bull  bred  by  William  Duthie,  a  noted  Scotch 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  243 

breeder.  Villager's  dam  is  Rosy  Cloud.  She  was  bred  by 
C.  H.  Jolliffe,  and  her  sire  was  Chorister,  also  bred  by  William 
Duthie.  The  grandam  of  Villager  was  Rosy  Dawn;  his 
great-grandam,  Rose  Blossom;  his  great-great-grandam, 
Roselinty;  etc.  This  pedigree  goes  back  ten  generations, 
showing  only  the  ancestry  of  Villager  on  his  mother's  side, 
with  the  sire  of  each  female  in  this  breeding.  Except  for 
the  sire,  the  ancestry  on  that  side  of  the  pedigree  is  entirely 
left  out,  while  only  a  part  of  the  breeding  on  the  dam's 
side  is  given.  While  it  is  true  that  the  dam's  pedigree  is 
thus  carried  out  much  farther  than  in  the  bracket  form,  what 
one  should  know  most  about  is  the  near  relationship  all 
through,  at  least  four  generations.  A  Shorthorn  pedigree  of 
this  form  shows  the  tribe  or  family  to  which  the  animal 
belongs  which  in  this  case  is  the  Rosebud,  which  started  in 
the  herd  of  S.  Campbell,  a  famous  breeder  of  Kinellar,  Scot- 
land. In  reference  to  this  pedigree,  after  the  name  of  each 
toale  a  number  is  given.  This  indicates  his  registry  number 
in  the  Shorthorn  herd-book.  When  written  in  parenthesis, 
it  is  the  English  Shorthorn  Herd-Book  number.  Formerly 
only  the  herd-book  volume  and  page  was  given  for  Short- 
horn cows,  but  now  the  females  registered  in  America  are 
given  numbers,  as  is  customary  with  all  other  breeds.  The 
line  of  female  descent  pedigree  is  not  desirable,  and  breeders 
generally  should  use  the  bracket  form. 

The  amount  of  ancestry  shown  in  a  pedigree  naturally 
depends  upon  its  extent.  The  following  tabular  state- 
ment is  given  by  Davenport,*  which  shows  in  a  rather 
striking  way  the  percentages  of  blood  in  a  pedigree  at  dif- 
ferent points  for  ten  generations. 

*Principles  of  Breeding.     E.  Davenport,   1907,  page  595. 


244 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Relative  intensity  of  blood  lines  and  approximately  relative  influence 
of  different  generations  and  individuals  for  ten  generations  backwards. 


Generation 

Number  of 

tnfluence  of  generation 

Influence  of  each 

backwards 

ancestors 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

1 

2 

50.00 

25.00 

2 

4 

25.00 

6.25 

3 

8 

12.5  .. 

1.56+ 

4 

16 

6.25 

0.39  + 

5 

32 

3.125 

0.10— 

6 

64 

1.5625 

0.024+ 

7 

128 

0.78125 

0.008+ 

8 

256 

0.390625 

0.001  + 

9 

512 

0.1953125 

0.0004— 

10 

1024 

0.09765625 

0.0001— 

Total 

2046 

99.90234375 

The  statement  set  forth  by  this  table  shows  how  little 
influence  is  derived  from  one  individual  in  the  ancestry  ten 
generations  back.  Yet  the  value  of  blood  lines  depends  also 
on  the  character  of  the  breeding.  If  the  ancestry  is  pure, 
and  contains  the  names  of  animals  of  distinction  within  the 
same  family  lines,  then  it  will  mean  much  more  to  the  breeder 
who  understands  pedigrees,  than  it  will  if  the  inheritance 
shows  no  family  names  of  value. 

The  merit  value  of  a  pedigree  is  receiving  more  and  more 
attention.  By  merit  value  is  meant  the  number  of  animals 
in  the  pedigree  that  show  producing  records  of  some  kind. 


Pr.lro'.    Ray    Duke    42S13 


Sire   of   Pedro's  Rosaline.  16 

l.ia..s84's*W'Fr'nc" 


245».J 
7  da.f '  °'-    l»..u<y  of 


Pedro  3187    ...      

Pedro's  Happy  Malda*S26       V4     Hcttle    of    Brlarcliftef'lS     1 
Pedro's   Royal   Prln-  I  Leila    of    Brlarcllffe     .17     6 

Pedro's  PaliTy       "!l"l9  10  "es"n  Ibs.   fox.   in'V  days']  TorTAda 

Pedro's    Minette 19  <        Test    778   Ibs.   1    oz.   In    1    year. 

Pedro's    Marjoram    1»  6        Dai: 

Pedro's    Lady     18  12 


In   1   ye 
Pedro. 


Fig.  147. 


The  pedigree  of  a  son  of  the  noted  Jersey  bull  Pedro,  showing  merit 
in  three  generations  on  both  sides.     From  a  sale  catalogue. 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  245 

If  one  studies  the  pedigree  of  a  race  horse,  he  shbuld  find 
therein  the  names  of  many  animals  with  speed  records  to 
their  credit.  In  the  case  of  a  dairy  breed  of  cattle,  then  milk 
or  butter-fat  records  may  be  given,  as  well  as  the  records 
of  offspring  of  sires  and  dams.  With  some  breeds,  a  state- 
ment is  affixed  showing  prizes  won  in  the  show  ring.  In 
cases  of  animals  selling  at  high  prices,  these  facts  are  also 
sometimes  inserted  in  the  pedigree.  The  important  thing 
is  to  show  at  different  points  in  the  ancestry  the  richness  of 
the  pedigree  in  production.  At  the  present  day,  one  should 
have  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  pedigrees  of  pure-bred 
animals  that  will  give  more  or  less  specific  information 
regarding  performance  on  the  part  of  individuals  in  the 
pedigree.  The  richer  the  ancestry  in  record-making 
achievement,  the  higher  the  price  one  must  usually  pay 
for  the  animal  purchased. 

A  pedigree  score  card  suggesting  the  relative  importance 
of  near  and  remote  ancestors  has  been  proposed  by  Prof. 
F.  R.  Marshall.*  In  this  score  card,  24  points  are  given  the 
sire  (12  for  siring  good  stock,  and  12  for  individual  merit), 
and  24  points  are  given  the  dam  (10  for  her  record  as  a  pro- 
ducer, and  14  for  individual  merit),  with  4  points  on  similarity 
of  type  of  sire  and  dam.  The  grandparents  are  given  a  total 
of  24  points,  ranging  from  four  to  two  points  each  for  records 
as  producers,  and  individual  merit.  The  great-grandparents 
are  accorded  one  point  each  on  production,  individuality, 
and  ancestry.  This  is  an  interesting  score  card,  that  may 
come  into  considerable  use. 

The  accuracy  of  the  pedigree  is  of  first  importance.  It 
may  not  be  accurate  for  two  reasons;  first,  because  of 
errors  in  writing  it,  due  to  carelessness  or  otherwise; 
and  second,  from  dishonesty.  Mistakes  will  occur  among  the 

^Breeding  Farm  Animals,  1911,  page  110. 


246  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

most  careful  and  conscientious.  The  published  herd-books 
of  registry  associations  have  in  the  past  contained  many 
errors,  although  conditions  now  are  greatly  improved.  Then 
honest  men  have  copied  from  sale  catalogues  pedigrees  that 
contained  mistakes,  and  have  republished  these  errors.  The 
most  unfortunate  pedigree  is  the  "  doctored/'  or  crooked, 
one.  Fraudulent  pedigrees  exist,  and  men  have  on  more 
than  one  occasion  been  prohibited  from  doing  business 
with  registry  associations  on  account  of  fraud.  If  guilty, 
the  penitentiary  is  what  they  deserve.  Integrity  is  the 
foundation  on  which  the  pure-bred  live-stock  business  is 
based,  and  all  known  cases  of  fraud  should  be  regarded  as 
of  criminal  character,  and  be  punished  accordingly. 

A  study  of  the  pedigree  is  a  necessity,  if  one  is  to  become  a 
successful  breeder  of  pure-bred  stock.  There  are  several 
ways  by  which  one  may  become  familiar  with  pedigrees. 
Suppose  one  is  to  breed  Jersey  cattle.  Then,  if  in  the  busi- 
ness in  a  serious  way,  he  should  try  and  secure  the  herd- 
books  published  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club.  These 
are  the  original  source  from  which  all  Jersey  pedigrees  are 
made  up  in  the  United  States.  Having  these  books,  one 
may  at  any  time  trace  the  pedigrees  of  registered  animals. 
Sale  catalogues  should  be  saved  by  the  breeder,  for  they  will 
often  be  found  valuable  for  reference,  even  though  some  of 
them  are  carelessly  prepared.  The  register  of  merit  should 
also  be  kept  for  reference,  so  that  information  may  be  at  hand 
regarding  official  records  of  production.  One  also  should 
read  the  current  literature  regarding  the  breed.  Some  of 
the  more  important  breeds  are  represented  by  special 
journals,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  information 
concerning  animals  of  distinction.  By  these  various  methods 
one  may  accumulate  much  knowledge  regarding  pedigrees  of 
animals. 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE  247 

IN  MAKING  A  STUDY  OF  THE  PEDIGREE 

1.  What  does  it  show? 

2.  What  is  a  grade  or  high  grade? 

3.  Explain  the  bracket  form  and  its  value. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  line  of  female  descent? 

5.  How  many  ancestors  does  one  have  in  the  fifth  generation  back? 

6.  How  important  is  the  blood  influence  of  an  animal  ten  genera- 
tions back? 

7.  What  is  merit  value  of  pedigree? 

8.  Describe  a  pedigree  score  card. 

9.  Give  two  causes  of  inaccurate  pedigrees? 

10.  How  can  one  become  familiar  with  pedigrees? 

CAN  YOU  BRING  TO  THE  CLASS 

11.  The  pedigree  of  an  animal  with  which  you  are  acquainted? 

12.  An  example  of  a  bracketed  pedigree? 

13.  A  sample  of  a  Shorthorn  pedigree? 

14.  Pedigree  showing  merit,  or  performance,  of 

(a)  Dairy  cattle? 

(b)  Race  horses? 

15.  A  sale  catalogue  showing  prices  paid  for  animals? 

16.  A  pedigree  containing  an  error? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS 

A  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  breeding  is  desirable  for 
breeders  generally.  This  knowledge  is  important,  no  matter 
what  kind  of  stock  one  wishes  to  produce,  for  only  by  intelli- 
gent application  may  one  become  best  qualified  as  a  breeder. 
Therefore  the  student  should  keep  in  mind  that  no  matter 
in  what  kind  of  stock  he  is  interested  these  pages  are  intended 
to  serve  as  a  help  in  the  development  of  the  herd.  In  this 
connection,  there  are  certain  things  that  may  well  be  empha- 
sized in  starting  out  in  this  work. 

Breed  for  a  special  purpose.  The  successful  breeders  of 
the  world  have  always  been  specialists.  The  first  thing  to 
be  considered  is  the  purpose  for  which  the  animals  are  to 
be  produced.  One  may  have  in  mind  meat,  milk,  speed,  or 
draft,  but  he  should  recognize  that  whether  dealing  with 
breed  or  type,  the  final  aim  is  some  form  of  production.  A 
multitude  of  examples  illustrating  the  policies  of  successful 
stockmen  might  be  given  to  show  the  results  secured  through 
breeding  for  special  purpose. 

Stick  to  a  well  laid  out  policy.  The  breeders  who  have 
made  the  most  out  of  their  efforts  have  been  persistent,  and 
have  staid  by  the  kind  of  stock  with  which  they  began.  The 
one  who  endeavors  to  keep  only  a  class  of  stock  that  is  selling 
at  high  prices,  unloading  at  times  of  depression  of  values, 
rarely  succeeds.  Every  business,  including  the  live-stock 
business,  goes  through  periods  of  prosperity  and  of  low  values. 
Take  sheep  for  example.  They  fluctuate  in  a  wide  range  of 
values,  and  some  men  dispose  of  their  entire  flocks  when 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  249 

sheep  are  very  low  in  price.  Investigation,  however,  will 
show  that  the  man  who  has  staid  by  his  sheep  through  the 
years,  irrespective  of  values,  has  made  a  good  profit  on  his 
long-time  investment. 

Keep  a  few  good  animals,  rather  than  many  common 
ones.  One  may  perhaps  make  money  breeding  common 
individuals,  but  the  right  kind  of  reputation  comes  to  a 
breeder  through  his  best  animals.  A  buyer,  as  a  rule,  will 


Fig.  148.     "Keep  a  few  good  ones."     Photograph  by  Prof.  John  W.  Decker. 

try  to  purchase  the  choicest  stock.  If  the  breeder  sells 
these,  he  will  follow  the  worst  possible  policy.  As  has  been 
suggested  elsewhere,  he  would  better  cull  out  the  undesir- 
able animals  and  rely  on  a  smaller  number  of  good  ones  to 
build  up  his  herd.  A  group  of  uniformly  good  animals, 
whether  grade  or  pure-bred,  is  always  an  attractive  sight, 
and  serves  as  an  advertisement  of  the  best  kind.  A  motley 
herd,  lacking  character,  is  not  attractive,  and  hurts  the  repu- 
tation of  the  breeder. 


250  BEGINNINGS  IN  'ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Pay  a  premium  on  merit  when  purchasing  animals  for  the 
herd.  Too  many  breeders  buy  inferior  animals  because  they 
are  cheap.  From  a  breeding  point  of  view,  one  should  select 
animals  that  combine  individual  merit  and  pedigree.  If 
there  is  anything  in  the  laws  of  breeding  that  has  been  help- 
ful in  the  past,  it  is  the  knowledge  that  like  produces  like. 
Each  year  in  the  history  of  a  herd  should  mark  improvement, 
and  this  cannot  be  the  case  if  one  purchases  beasts  of  an 
inferior  character.  The  influence  of  a  new  animal  in  the 
herd  is  far-reaching,  be  it  good  or  bad.  One  should  care- 
fully consider  this,  and  be  governed  accordingly.  Some  of 
the  most  profitable  breeding  animals  in  history  cost  a  high 
price.  The  Berkshire  boar,  Masterpiece,  was  purchased 
by  Mr.  Corsa  for  $2500,  and  proved  to  be  a  very  profitable 
animal  at  that  record-breaking  price. 

Try  to  become  a  judge.  If  one  is  to  be  a  breeder,  he 
should  be  familiar  with  the  relation  of  form  to  purpose,  and 
should  be  judge  enough  to  select  intelligently  his  own  breed- 
ing stock.  There  are  courses  of  instruction  whereby  system- 
atic training  in  judging  may  be  secured.  Good  judgment 
in  culling  out  the  undesirable  animals  from  the  herd,  and 
in  the  purchasing  of  new  stock,  is  highly  essential,  whether 
for  breeding  or  feeding  purposes.  Some  practical  feeders 
have  the  reputation  of  shipping  only  good  fat-stock  to  the 
market,  and  buyers  are  always  on  the  lookout  for  animals 
fed  by  them,  for  which  they  pay  the  top  price  of  the  day. 

Feed  your  animals  well.  One  cannot  purchase  high- 
class  stock  and  keep  them  in  good  form  and  state  of  de- 
velopment, unless  properly  fed.  Many  persons  buy  animals 
in  good  condition,  but  neglect  them  after  the  animals  come 
into  their  possession.  Where  men  must  buy  feed,  they  too 
frequently  neglect  to  give  their  new  purchases  enough  to 
keep  them  in  thrifty,  healthy  condition.  Food  is  essential 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  251 

to  maintain  life  and  produce  growth  and  vigor.  It  is  a 
serious  mistake  to  be  niggardly  in  the  use  of  feed.  Further- 
more, no  herd  can  do  other  than  go  backward,  if  the  animals 
are  not  fed  wisely.  Young  growing  stock,  starved  and 
neglected,  become  inferior  in  development,  and  in  due  season 
naturally  reproduce  inferior  offspring.  A  true  stockman 
always  enjoys  seeing  his  animals  eat,  and  realizes  that  some- 
thing is  wrong  if  they  do  not  show  a  hearty  appetite. 

Do  not  be  led  astray  by  fads.  Develop  a  herd  that  com- 
bines the  useful  and  beautiful  in  the  highest  possible  degree, 
for  these  two  important  features  naturally  go  together. 
Leave  out  of  consideration  pedigrees  that  do  not  stand  for 
merit.  Remember  that  peculiarities  of  form  often  are  of 
little  real  value,  and  that  it  is  not  wise  to  go  to  extremes  in 
these  things.  Do  not  make  color  a  vital  thing  with  those 
breeds  in  which  variation  in  this  respect  occurs.  Whether 
an  Ayrshire  cow  is  one-fourth  or  three-fourths  white,  is  a 
very  superficial  matter.  Her  general  conformation,  con- 
stitution, and  producing  capacity,  are  the  important  sub- 
jects to  consider,  rather  than  the  color  fad. 

Study  your  local  environment,  and  learn  what  class  of 
stock  you  will  be  most  likely  to  succeed  with  on  the  land  and 
under  the  conditions  which  surround  you.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
best  to  keep  the  sort  of  live  stock  that  is  most  common  in 
the  community.  If  in  any  one  county  in  a  state  there  was 
but  a  single  breed  of  hogs,  for  example,  with  many  herds 
represented,  it  would  result  in  more  buyers  coming  into  that 
section  for  this  special  breed,  than  would  come  otherwise. 
They  would  visit  this  locality  because  the  greatest  selection 
of  individuals  for  sale  would  be  at  hand  within  a  limited  terri- 
tory. This  would  save  the  buyer  time  and  money.  It  would 
also  be  a  fine  thing  for  the  sellers,  because  of  the  number  of 
men  coming  in  to  inspect  their  stock. 


252  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Become  acquainted  with  the  families  or  strains  of  the 
breed  in  which  you  are  interested.  It  is  important  to  know 
something  of  these.  Those  breeds  that  are  represented  by 
a  large  number  of  animals,  include  families  of  varying  degrees 
of  merit.  These  family  traits  may  be  regarded  of  much 
importance,  and  may  greatly  affect  values.  Prepotency, 
special  forms  of  production,  adaptability  to  certain  condi- 
tions, temperament,  etc.,  are  features  one  or  more  of  which 
are  stronger  in  some  families  than  in  others.  Old  experienced 
breeders  who  are  regarded  as  successful,  consider  carefully 
matters  of  this  sort,  and  act  accordingly. 

Cultivate  the  acquaintance  of  breeders.  The  man  who 
would  succeed  in  his  business  must  gather  information  from 
every  legitimate  source.  Knowledge  is  a  matter  of  accu- 
mulation. We  accumulate  through  observation  and  per- 
sonal contact.  We  get  inspiration  from  those  who  succeed. 
It  is  a  fine  thing  to  enjoy  the  friendship  of  men  who  are 
leaders  in  the  line  of  business  in  which  we  ourselves  are 
interested.  Darwin,  one  of  the  greatest  scientists,  gathered 
a  fund  of  most  valuable  information  from  the  English  stock- 
man and  farmer,  in  whose  acquaintance  he  took  great 
pleasure.  Thomas  Bates,  the  noted  English  Shorthorn 
breeder,  received  much  inspiration  from  his  acquaintance 
with  the  Colling  Brothers,  men  who  were  doing  much  for 
these  cattle  while  Bates  was  yet  young.  Furthermore, 
co-operate  with  your  brother  breeders  in  a  generous  way 
for  the  promotion  and  uplift  of  live-stock  interests,  whereby 
all  will  be  benefited. 

A  private  herd  record  should  be  kept  by  every  stockman 
owning  a  breeding  herd.  Such  a  record  should  contain  a  list 
of  the  animals  in  the  herd,  giving  their  correct  names  and 
registry  numbers,  dates  of  birth,  names  of  sires  and  dams, 
and  of  the  men  who  bred  them.  A  record  should  also  be 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  253 

kept  of  all  animals  produced  on  the  farm,  with  facts  of  their 
parentage.  There  are  private  herd-books  especially 
arranged,  providing  blank  spaces  for  the  various  facts  of 
importance,  that  can  be  purchased  at  .a  reasonable  price. 
If  desired,  one  can  prepare  his  own  style  of  private  herd- 
book.  The  records  which  go  in  such  a  book  are  most  impor- 
tant, and  all  men  engaged  in  breeding  should  feel  it  a  duty  to 
keep  them  with  care. 

Methods  of  doing  business  with  registry  associations 
should  be  considered  by  the  breeder.  Each  breed  is.  repre- 
sented by  an  association  of  men  who  prescribe  the  methods 
of  registry  and  transfer  of  animals  of  that  breed.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  secretary  to  furnish  breeders  with  blank  forms 
which  they  may  fill  out  and  file  with  the  association,  whereby 
they  may  register  their  stock  from  time  to  time.  The  secre- 
tary also  furnishes  the  necessary  rules  and  regulations  for 
doing  business  with  the  association.  It  is  not  .necessary  for 
a  person  to  be  a  member  of  an  association  for  promoting  and 
registering  a  breed,  but  it  is  desirable  that  he  should  be.  As 
a  rule,  members  of  registry  associations  do  business  with  it 
for  about  half  the  cost  to  outsiders;  and  if  one  registers  many 
animals,  he  would  soon 
cover  the  cost  of  mem- 
bership, which  varies 
with  the  breeds,  from 
$5  to  $100.  Fig-149'  TtaD— 

The  identification  of  breeding  stock  on  the  farm  is 
important.  For  this  reason  various  methods  are  used  to 
mark  animals  so  that  they  can  be  identified.  Metal  ear 
tags,  on  which  is  stenciled  the  name  or  irjltials  of  the  owner, 
with  a  number,  is  in  common  use.  Such  a  tag  is  fastened  in 
the  ear,  a  hole  being  punched  through  which  to  pass  a  part 
of  the  tag.  These  tags  are  often  torn  out  and  lost,  and  so  are 


JOHN  SMITH, 
LOGAN,  IOW 


254 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


not  altogether  popular.  The  tatooing  of  numbers  within 
the  ear,  by  means  of  a  special  needle  and  an  indelible  fluid, 

is  also  used  to  some  extent. 
Hogs  and  sheep  are  com- 
monly identified  by  notch- 
es cut  in  the  thinner  edge 
of  the  ear,  although  metal 
tags  are  also  frequently 
used  with  these  animals. 
The  hoofs  of  horses  are 
also  stenciled  with  num- 
bers, especially  in  case  of 

Fig.  150.      Branding     numbers   on  the  hoof.    Z~nnr\*.-t-n4-ir*.-v  CJ^*--^.^™. 

Photograph  by  the  author.  importation.      bometimes 

the  horns  of    cattle   are 

marked  in  a  similar  way.  On  the  ranges,  cattle  and 
horses  are  branded,  and  sheep  are  given  marks  with 
paint,  by  which  ownership  may  be  identified.  Some  of  our 
breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  especially  those  of  different  body 
colors,  are  identified  by  the  location  of  color  marks  on  the 


Fig.  151.    Southdown  rams  at  Babraham,  England,  showing  method  of  marking. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  265 

body.  For  example,  when  applying  for  registry  of  a  Hol- 
stein-Friesian,  it  is  necessary  to  trace  on  a  diagram  showing 
the  outline  of  body  form,  the  shape  or  outline  of  each  black 
spot,  or  marking.  A  copy  of  these  outlines  is  made  on  the 
certificate  of  registry,  so  that  identification  is  made  easy. 
Every  breeder,  as  a  matter  of  good  policy,  should  have  a 
system  of  individual  identification  of  the  animals  in  his  herd. 
The  use  of  literature  relating  to  the  breeds  is  to  be  highly 
commended.  Periodicals  are  published  exclusively  in  the 
interests  of  certain  breeds,  and  most  of  these  deserve  support. 
Real  live-stock  students  will  make  it  a  point  to  obtain  books 
on  breeding  and  on  the  breeds,  and  each  will  secure  such  infor- 
mation as  can  be  obtained  regarding  the  development  of  his 
favorite  stock.  The  herd-books  issued  by  the  breed  asso- 
ciations should  also  be  on  the  book  shelves  of  the  stockman, 
for  they  are  invaluable  in  tracing  up  blood  lines  and  in  study- 
ing pedigrees. 

AS  A  MATTER  OF  GOOD  BUSINESS 

1.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  an  established  policy? 

2.  Give  an  example  of  paying  a  premium  on  merit. 

3.  Has  feed  much  to  do  with  herd  improvement? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  a  live  stock  "fad." 

5.  Why  cultivate  the  acquaintance  of  breeders? 

6.  What  advantage  is  there  in  the  private  herd-book? 

7.  Why  be  a  member  of  a  live-stock  registry  association? 

8.  Specify  three  kinds  of  identification  marks  for  live  stock. 

9.  What  forms  of  literature  are  available  for  the  stockman? 

FIVE  INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  DO 

10.  Locate  the  man  who  has  dealt  in  some  one  kind  of  live  stock 
longer  than  anyone  else  in  your  section,  and  report  on  his  methods, 
after  making  him  a  visit. 


256  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

11.  Report  on  the  most  uniform  herd  within  five  miles  of  school, 
giving  facts  of  interest. 

12.  Make  a  sample  page  for  a  private  herd  record  and  bring  to 
class. 

13.  Secure  and  bring  to  class  samples  of  blanks  for  registering  and 
transferring  animals  of  some  one  breed. 

14.  Report  on  methods  of  identifying  stock  used  by  different  stock- 
men in  your  community. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

The  plant  as  a  source  of  food  is  of  great  interest  to  feeders 
of  live  stock.  All  our  farm  animals  eat  green  plants  with 
relish,  just  as  a  man  enjoys  celery.  When  plants  are  properly 
dried  and  cured  as  hay,  their  value  for  feed  is  not  thereby 
affected.  All  of  our  grains  are  products  of  plants;  and  from 
these  directly,  or  indirectly  by  milling,  do  we  obtain  some  of 
our  most  valuable  feeds  for  farm  animals.  So  the  facts  are 
that  the  plant,  in  one  form  or  another,  really  furnishes  our 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry  with  about  all  of 
their  food. 

The  material  of  which  plants  are  made  is  taken  from  both 
soil  and  air,  but  largely  from  the  soil.  Like  animals,  plants 
must  have  food.  The  chemist  tells  us  that  all  matter  is 
composed  of  elements,  about  13  of  which  provide  food  for 
the  plants.  The  names  of  some  of  these  are  common,  such 
as  iron,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  There  are  four  others: 
Carbon  Oxygen 

Hydrogen  Nitrogen 

that  are  also  important.  Besides  these,  the  plant  needs 
potassium,  calcium,  sodium,  magnesia,  chlorin,  and  silica. 
Most  of  these  elements  are  found  in  different  combinations  in 
the  soil,  more  or  less  dissolved  in  the  water.  By  means  of  its 
roots,  the  plant  takes  up  the  water  and  so  carries  this  food 
through  all  its  various  parts.  As  this  water  or  sap 
moves  through  the  structure  of  the  plant  cells,  the  food  in 
solution  is  used  to  promote  growth.  Carbon,  oxygen, 
nydrogen,  and  nitrogen  are  gases  in  the  air.  The  first  two 

17— 


258  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

of  these  unite  to  form  carbon  dioxide,  or  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  the  plant  breathes  in  through  the  pores  of  the  leaves. 
This  gas  in  the  plant  goes  through  a  change,  and  the  oxygen 
is  breathed  out,  and  the  carbon  is  left  to  be  made  up  into  the 
solid  part  of  the  plant. 

Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  a  compound  is  taken  up  by  the 
plant  through  its  roots;  but  plants  of  the  legume  group,  such 
as  the  clovers  aided  by  certain  bacteria,  have  the  power  of 
using  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  atmosphere.  Nitrogen  is  a 
highly  valued  plant  food,  and  the  farmer  often  purchases  it 
in  fertilizer  at  a  good  price.  These  different  elements  unite 
with  one  or  more  others  in  the  plant,  and  form  combinations 
which  are  familiar  to  us  under  various  names.  Of  these,  the 
following  are  important  when  we  come  to  consider  the  plant 
as  food. 

Water  is  a  combination  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It  is 
found  in  all  plants,  and  even  in  very  dry  hay.  To  get  the 
water  entirely  out  of  the  plant,  it  must  be  driven  out  with 
artificial  heat.  The  amount  of  water  in  plants  differs  greatly. 
Common  timothy  hay  and  red  clover  contain  about  15  per 
cent,  and  ordinary  corn  meal  has  a  similar  amount.  About 
80  per  cent  of  green  pasture  grass  is  water,  and  some  of  our 
roots,  like  the  turnip,  have  90  per  cent.  After  the  water  is 
driven  from  the  plant  by  heat,  what  is -left  is  dry  matter. 
The  water  in  the  plant  is  worth  no  more  than  any  other  water, 
its  chief  value  being  to  carry  food  in  solution  through  the 
plant. 

Ash,  or  mineral  matter  of  plants,  we  see  in  the  ashes  left 
from  burned  wood.  When  we  burn  a  plant,  we  destroy  its 
form,  and  all  that  which  burns  and  disappears  we  call 
organic  matter.  That  which  is  left  is  ash,  or  inorganic 
matter.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  amount  of  ash  in 
plants.  Green  or  very  young  plants  contain  the  least,  and 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  259 

old  ones  the  most.  Common  corn  fodder  contains  about 
3  per  cent  of  ash,  alfalfa  about  10  per  cent,  and  some  of  the 
roots  1  per  cent.  The  ash  in  plants  is  of  value  for  food,  if  not 
too  abundant.  Hogs  raised  on  feeds  containing  but  little 
mineral  matter,  such  as  corn,  for  example,  do  not  have  as 
good  bone  or  do  not  feed  so  well  as  when  the  corn  is  supple- 
mented with  other  feeds  containing  more  ash. 

Protein  in  the  plant  is  a  combination  in  which  nitrogen, 
especially,  plays  a  very  important  part,  and  is  combined  with 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  sulphur.  There  are  dif- 
ferent forms  of  protein,  but  we  do  not  need  to  concern  our- 
selves about  that  here.  This  substance  is  not  usually  abun- 
dant all  through  the  plant.  Rough  stalks  contain  but  little. 
Prairie  grass  hay  has  about  6  per  cent,  red  clover  12  per  cent, 
and  cotton  seed  18^  per  cent.  The  growing  plant  usually 
has  its  greatest  amount  of  protein  when  in  bloom.  Seeds 
are  richest  in  this  substance,  for  as  the  plant  matures  it 
shifts  the  protein  to  some  extent  from  stalk  to  seed.  In  some 
of  our  mills  where  seeds  are  crushed  or  otherwise  treated 
and  the  hulls  removed,  by-products,  very  rich  in  protein, 
are  produced.  Cottonseed  meal  is  a  good  example.  Protein, 
whether  used  to  feed  plants  or  animals,  is  the  highest  priced 
food  constituent  the  farmer  can  buy,  when  we  consider  the 
price  he  must  pay  on  the  market.  This  is  because  it  contains 
BO  much  of  the  valuable  element,  nitrogen. 

The  carbohydrates  are  combinations  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  and  contain  no  nitrogen.  These  are  the  most 
abundant  of  our  food  substances  in  plants.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  carbohydrates,  one  known  as  nitrogen-free  extract, 
consisting  mostly  of  sugar,  starch,  and  gums;  the  other  called 
fiber  or  crude  fiber,  making  up  the  woody  part  of  the  plant. 
Most  of  the  fiber  is  cellulose,  the  material  composing  the 


260  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

walls  of  plant  cells.  The  chemist  may  dissolve  out  the 
starch  and  the  sugar  from  the  plant  cells;  what  is  left  is  the 
fiber.  The  starch,  sugar,  and  fiber  are  all  carbohydrates, 
but  the  first  two  are  much  better  for  food,  as  they  are  very 
much  more  easily  digested  than  the  fiber.  In  general  we  see 
carbohydrates  all  about  us  in  plants  and  plant  products. 
The  most  of  the  stalk  of  corn,  or  any  growing  plant,  consists 
of  carbohydrates.  Common  rice  and  potatoes  are  rich  in 
this  substance.  Many  of  our  hays  contain  from  60  to  70 
per  cent;  therefore  this  is  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the  most 
common  constituent  of  animal  feeds.  Animals  cannot  sub- 
sist on  carbohydrates  alone,  although  they  are  very  valuable 
as  a  source  of  heat  and  energy.  However,  the  farmer  must 
depend  largely  on  materials  rich  in  these  substances  to  supply 
the  great  bulk  of  the  feed  for  his  stock. 

The  fat  in  the  plant  is  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  in"  different  combinations  from  which  we  find  them 
in  the  carbohydrates.  Fat,  or  ether  extract,  as  it  is  also 
called,  is  not  usually  abundant  in  plants.  One  to  3  per  cent 
is  the  usual  amount  with  many  plants.  The  seeds  ordinarily 
contain  the  most,  some  of  these  like  cottonseed  and  flax 
having  large  quantities,  so  that  it  is  extracted  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  the  by-product  rich  in  protein  is  sold  as  cake 
or  meal.  Fat  is  of  special  value  in  the  food,  as  it  furnishes 
the  animal  both  heat  and  energy. 

The  words  roughage  and  concentrate  are  commonly  used 
today  by  persons  referring  to  feeding  stuffs.  When  a  farmer 
speaks  of  roughage,  he  means  hay,  corn  fodder,  or  some  coarse 
feed  of  that  kind.  By  a  concentrate,  he  means  seeds  that 
may  be  fed,  or  products  made  from  them,  such  as  bran,  corn 
meal,  oil  meal,  etc.  Any  form  of  feed  for  farm  animals 
that  contains  much  protein  is  usually  considered  a  con- 
centrate. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 


261 


The  following  arrangement  will  show  how  the  parts*  of 
the  plant  are  related  to  one  another: 

All  feeding  stuffs  consist  of 


Water 


and 


Dry  flatter 
I 


Ash,  or 
Inorganic  Matter 


Organic  Mattee 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat,  or 
Ether  Extract. 


Nitrogen-Free 
Extract 


Fiber 


The  material  of  which  the  animal  is  made  is  very  similar 
to  that  used  in  building  plant  tissue.  To  begin  with,  the 
body  of  the  animal  is  made  up  of  water  and  dry  matter.  If 
we  remove  the  water,  dry  matter  is  left.  If  this  is  burned 
entirely  so  that  even  the  charcoal  is  destroyed,  the  organic 
part  disappears  and  only  ash  is  left.  The  organic  matter, 
while  made  of  chemical  substances  similar  to  those  found  in 
plants,  consists  mostly  of  protein  and  fat,  with  but  little  of 
the  carbohydrates.  The  composition  of  the  animal  body  may 
well  be  studied  a  little  more  in  detail. 

Water  in  the  animal  body  is  found  in  the  blood,  and  in  the 
fleshy  and  bony  parts.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  animal 
depends  upon  age  and  condition.  Young  animals  have 
rather  watery  bodies.  The  older  an  animal  becomes,  or  the 


262  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

fatter  he  gets,  the  less  water  is  found  in  the  body.  For 
example,  a  calf  a  week  old  may  consist  of  60  per  cent  water, 
while  a  fat  cow  four  years  old  may  be  but  45  per  cent  water. 
It  will  be  fairly  accurate  to  say  that  about  50  per  cent  of  the 
body  of  an  animal  under  usual  conditions  is  water. 

The  mineral  matter,  or  ash,  in  the  animal  is  more  or  less 
abundant,  according  to  age  and  condition.  Old  animals 
always  contain  more  than  do  young  ones,  and  fat  less  than 
lean  ones.  Usually  we  find  a  little  over  three  pounds  of  ash 
for  each  100  pounds  of  body  weight.  A  fat,  corn-fed  hog, 
however,  may  be  so  short  of  ash  in  the  body  that  the  bone  will 
hardly  be  strong  enough  to  support  its  weight.  The  ash  in 
the  animal  is  made  of  the  same  substances  as  that  found 
in  plants. 

The  protein  of  the  body  is  to  be  seen  in  the  form  of 
muscles,  tendons,  blood,  nerves,  the  internal  organs,  hide, 
hair,  horns,  etc.  Lean  meat  with  no  fat  on  it  is  protein,  or 
nitrogenous  material.  The  fatter  the  animal,  the  less  the 
percentage  of  protein  in  the  body.  In  the  entire  body  of  a 
farm  animal  under  usual  conditions  we  find  about  13  or  14 
per  cent  protein.  In  the  dressed  carcass,  ready  to  be  sold 
for  meat,  we  find  about  17  per  cent. 

The  fat  of  the  animal  body  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  or  of  the  same  chemical  substances  as  the 
fat  of  plants,  but  differing  in  combination.  The  amount 
of  fat  in  the  body  depends  much  on  how  an  animal  has 
been  fed.  If  we  take  a  young  growing  pig,  the  body  may 
contain  only  25  per  cent  fat,  or  even  less,  but  a  hog  that 
has  been  well  fattened  and  is  ready  for  the  butcher  may 
contain  over  40  per  cent.  Not  often  do  we  find  less  than 
6  per  cent  fat  in  the  body,  or  over  35  per  cent.  In  the  carcass 
ready  for  cutting  up  in  the  shop,  we  find  about  20  per  cent 
fat,  under  usual  conditions. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  263 

Carbohydrates  in  the  animal  body  are  but  contained  in  it, 
not  a  part  of  it,  and  so  this  substance  cannot  be  considered  a 
constituent  of  animal  flesh.  However,  carbohydrates  exist 
in  the  body  in  two  forms;  one,  glycogen,  similar  to  starch 
in  composition,  found  in  the  liver  and  muscles;  and  the 
other  lactose,  or  the  sugar  of  milk,  found  in  milk.  Dex- 
trose is  also  found  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  blood  and  tissues. 

Comparing  plants  and  animals,  we  see  that  the  plant 
obtains  its  food  from  the  air  and  from  the  mineral  matter  in 
the  soil,  from  which  it  develops  a  form  made  up  of  cells  that 
are  largely  carbohydrates.  The  farm  animal  obtains  its 
nutriment  from  the  plant,  from  which  is  created  a  body  form, 
also  composed  of  cells,  but  in  this  case,  of  nitrogenous  mate- 
rial. During  the  day  the  plant  sucks  in  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  air  through  its  leaves,  and  holds  the  carbon,  and  gives 
off  the  oxygen.  The  animal,  on  the  contrary,  draws  the  air 
into  the  lungs,  uses  the  oxygen  from  it,  and  then  breathes 
out  carbon  dioxide.  Thus  we  see  that  these  two  great 
groups  of  living  matter,  the  plants  and  animals,  are  of  vital 
importance  to  each  other,  and  have  much  in  common. 
Without  the  plant  or  its  products  the  animal  could  not  live; 
while  by  feeding  on  it,  the  beast  converts  the  vegetable  sub- 
stance into  a  yet  more  concentrated  and  more  valuable 
material. 

REAL  FOUNDATION  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  ten  elements,  tell  where  they  occur  and  how  taken  up 
by  plants. 

2.  How  abundant  and  useful  is  water  in  the  plant? 

3.  Discuss  protein  and  its  occurrence. 

4.  What  two  kinds  of  carbohydrates  are  there?     Illustrate. 

5.  Where  in  the  plant  is  the  fat  most  abundant? 

6.  What  is  a  concentrate?    Give  three  examples. 

7.  How  much  water  is  found  in  the  animal  body? 


264  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

8.  Of  what  use  is  the  mineral  matter  in  the  animal? 

9.  What  percentages  of  protein  and  fat  are  found  in  animals? 

10.  Where  are  the  carbohydrates  found  in  the  animal? 

THINGS  EASILY  FOUND.     LOOK  FOR  THEM 

11.  Specimens  of  elements. 

12.  Organic  and  inorganic  matter. 

13.  Ashes  of  different  kinds. 

14.  The  protein  of  plants  and  also  of  animals 

15.  Five  kinds  of  fat. 

16.  Roughage  and  concentrates. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY 

In  order  to  understand  the  influence  of  food  on  the  body, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  briefly  the  simpler  features  of 
digestion. 

The  process  of  digestion  begins  with  the  mouth,  where  the 
food  is  broken  up  and  softened.  The  fluid  called  saliva  flows 
from  small  glands  at  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  the  mixing 
of  this  with  the  food  in  the  mouth  is  called  insalivation. 
This  fluid  contains  substances  which  act  on  the  starch  in 
the  food  and  help  change  it  to  sugar,  so  that  it  may  be 
absorbed  more  readily.  In  swallowing,  the  food  passes  from 
the  mouth  through  the  aesophagus,  or  gullet,  into  the  stom- 
ach. The  horse  and  hog  have  but  one  stomach,  but  cattle, 
sheep,  and  other  animals  that  chew  the  cud,  have  four. 
The  process  of  digestion,  however,  is  similar  in  all  stomachs. 
The  cow  chews  a  mouthful  of  grass  very  imperfectly  at  first 
and  swallows  it  into  the  paunch,  which  is  the  largest  of  the 
four  stomachs.  From  here,  after  more  or  less  mixing,  the 
food  is  forced  into  a  second  and  smaller  stomach,  called  the 
honeycomb.  After  it  has  been  churned  about  and  softened 
in  these  two  stomachs,  the  animal  forces  back  into  the  mouth 
as  frequently  as  desired,  a  small  amount  of  food  called 
the  "cud,"  for  further  chewing.  The  cattle-man  calls 
this  operation  "chewing  the  cud."  After  a  bit  this  is  re- 
turned, and  by  a  special  movement,  passes  into  the 
manyplies,  or  small  third  stomach,  from  which  it  passes  on 
into  the  fourth,  or  true  stomach.  While  in  the  true 
stomach  the  food  is  churned  about  and  mixed  with 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


4 


•  m 


Fig.  152.  The  stomach  of  cattle.  The  lower  figure 
shows  (a)  the  first  stomach,  (b)  the  second,  (c)  the  third,  and 
(d)  the  fourth.  The  upper  figure  shows  by  the  dotted  lines 
the  direction  of  movement  through  the  four  stomachs. 
Figures  reproduced  from  "Cattle  and  their  Diseases,"  U.  S 
Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY     267 

gastric  juice,  which  contains  a  little  acid.  These 
juices  act  on  the  food,  dissolving  and  changing  it  so  that 
it  can  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  digestive  tract  and 
be  used  in  the  body.  From  the  stomach,  by  a  peculiar 
wave-like  motion,  the  food  is  forced  on  into  the  small  intes- 
tines, where  it  is  mixed  with  other  fluids  that  aid  digestion. 
The  liver  and  pancreas  glands  both  pour  juices  over  the  food 
as  it  moves  along  the  way  in  the  small  intestine.  Thus  the 
food  from  the  time  it  is  taken  into  the  mouth  is  constantly 
acted  on  and  changed  for  use  in  the  body.  The  material 
not  absorbed  from  the  small  intestine  is  passed  on  into  the 
large  one,  where  the  last  changes  take  place.  During  this 
trip  in  the  body  the  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  are 
broken  up  into  different  smaller  and  simpler*particles.  When 
ready  to  be  absorbed,  they  are  taken  into  the  circulation  by 
the  blood  and  lymph,  and  carried  all  through  the  body. 
Left  in  the  cells,  these  particles  of  protein,  etc.,  which  are 
called  nutrients,  serve  their  final  purpose  of  building  up  the 
body  or  producing  milk  or  energy.  This  process  of  digestion 
and  absorption  is  rather  complicated,  and  includes  many 
changes  that  need  not  be  mentioned  here. 

The  size  and  capacity  of  the  digestive  organs  are  much 
greater  than  many  suppose.  The  following  figures  make  this 
clear: 

Capacity  of  stomach  and  intestines  of  Length  of  intestines 

The  horse 224  quarts 98  feet 

The  ox 377       "      187  feet 

The  sheep 47      "      107  feet 

The  hog .^ 29      "      77  feet 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  ox  has  a  very  great  capacity  in 
its  four  stomachs,  the  full  contents  of  which  will  fill  a  large 
barrel. 

The  food  in  the  body  is  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining 
life,  for  producing  growth  or  energy,  or  certain  substances, 


268  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

of  which  milk  is  .an  example.  On  this  account  people  who 
feed  live  stock  must  regulate  the  food  in  amount  and  kind  if 
they  wish  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

The  protein  in  the  food  during  digestion  is  acted  on  by 
what  are  called  digestive  ferments.  One  of  these,  pepsin, 
attacks  the  protein  in  the  stomach,  and  hydrochloric  acid 
also  takes  a  part  here.  These  break  up  the  protein  into 
simpler  forms,  making  them  suitable  for  use  in  the  body. 
After  the  protein  gets  into  the  intestines,  two  other  ferments 
attack  it,  and  make  such  changes  in  it  that  it  is  easily  dis- 
solved and  absorbed,  and  distributed  through  the  tissues 
of  the  body.  The  animal  cannot  take  the  protein  in  the 
plant  and  use  it  at  once  as  body  protein,  but  it  must  go 
through  these  changes  in  the  digestive  organs  before  it  can 
be  used.  The  protein  in  the  food  is  changed  to  body  pro- 
tein, of  which  lean  meat  is  the  best  example.  To  some 
extent  it  may  also  be  changed  into  fat.  Animals  that 
depend  entirely  upon  flesh  for  food  can  live  on  protein  alone 
if  necessary.  During  starvation,  the  body  loses  a  small  but 
rather  constant  amount  of  protein.  So  we  consider  this 
substance  especially  valuable  for  building  up  the  muscles, 
the  hair,  wool,  internal  organs,  blood,  and  similar  tissues. 

The  carbohydrates  in  the  food  are  largely  changed  into 
sugar  during  digestion.  Thus  they  are  more  easily  absorbed 
into  the  body.  There  are  different  kinds  of  sugars,  but  that 
in  the  food  is  converted  into  glucose.  This  sugar  is  then 
taken  up  by  the  circulation  and  carried  to  the  liver,  where  it 
is  again  changed  somewhat,  and  from  here  is  distributed 
over  the  body  as  needed.  The  carbohydrates  are  largely 
used  in  the  system  to  furnish  the  energy  necessary  in  work, 
and  to  make  fat.  Interesting  experiments  with  animals, 
show  that  more  fat  is  stored  in  the  body  than  can  be  sup- 
plied by  the  protein  and  fat  in  the  food.  Dr.  Jordan  of  the 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY      269 

New  York  experiment  station  has  clearly  proved  that  carbo- 
hydrates are  used  to  form  part  of  the  fat  in  the  milk  of  the 
cow.  If  animals  are  fed  enough  foods  rich  in  digestible  car- 
bohydrates, the  fat  in  the  body  will  not  tend  to  diminish  in 
amount.  In  other  words,  such  foods  protect  or  conserve 
the  body  fat.  The  carbohydrates  are  also  regarded  as  great 
sources  of  heat  and  energy.  This  will  be  explained  a  little 
further  on.  Feeds  containing  plenty  of  carbohydrates 
cost  less  for  the  dry  matter  in  them  than  do  any  other  feeds, 
and  are  valuable  for  filling  the  stomach.  Sheep  and  oxen 
must  be  fed  a  quantity  of  roughage,  as  a  filler,  if  they  are  to 
do  well. 

The  fat  of  the  food  when  in  the  small  intestine,  is  changed 
into  soap  and  glycerin.  It  is  finally  taken  up  in  the  circula- 
tion, in  a  changed  form,  and  then  stored  as  a  part  of  the  body 
fat.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  usually  made  from  the  fat  and 
the  carbohydrates  of  the  feed,  though  it  may  be  produced  to 
a  small  extent  from  protein.  There  is  usually  but  little  fat 
in  the  roughages  fed  to  stock. 

The  mineral  matter  in  the  food  is  taken  up  in  the  small 
intestine,  and  goes  through  no  special  digestive  changes  as 
with  the  other  food  substances.  Mineral  substances  are 
regarded  as  of  great  importance  in  building  up  the  body. 
Those  foods  that  contain  but  little  ash  give  poor  results  in 
feeding,  unless  the  necessary  material  is  supplied.  Years 
ago  Professor  W.  A.  Henry  showed  that  hogs  fed  only  corn, 
had  bone  just  about  half  as  strong  as  hogs  fed  bone  meal  or 
hard-wood  ashes  with  the  corn.  Farmers  give  hogs  ashes  or 
coal  because  these  animals  make  a  better  development  when 
so  fed.  Without  the  ash,  the  body  is  not  given  proper  nutri- 
tion. Corn  lacks  ash.  A  hundred  pounds  of  corn  meal  con- 
tains but  a  pound  and  a  half  of  ash,  while  a  hundred  pounds 
of  oats  has  more  than  twice  that  amount.  All  stockmen  rate 


270  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

oats  highly  for  producing  hard,  strong  bone  in  growing 
animals. 

All  food  has  a  heat  value,  just  as  coal  has.  If  burned, 
coal  gives  off  heat;  so  does  food.  All  heat  comes  from  the 
sun,  and  is  stored  up  in  the  plant,  ready  to  be  set  free. 
The  word  calorie  represents  a  measure  of  heat  given  off  by 
food.  One  calorie  equals  the  amount  of  heat  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  pound  of  water  4°  F.  The 
word  therm  is  now  being  adopted  as  more  convenient  for  use 
in  referring  to  stock  feeding.  A  therm  equals  1000  calories. 
If  we  raise  1000  pounds  of  water  4°  F,  that  measures  a  therm. 
While  food  is  being  digested  in  the  body,  heat  is  produced 
by  the  process.  Some  foods  contain  more  heat  than  others. 
The  difference  will  depend  largely  on  the  amount  of  fat  con- 
tained. Scientific  men  consider  that  the  heat  values  of  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  are  about  alike,  but  that  the  heat 
value  of  fat  is  2%  times  as  great  as  either  of  these.  This 
partly  explains  why  the  Eskimos  in  the  cold  north  eat  so  much 
food  that  is  nearly  all  fat,  as  the  blubber  of  the  whale. 
Corn  contains  more  fat  that  any  of  our  common  grains, 
which  accounts  in  part  for  its  use  as  a  winter  feed  for 
horses,  and  also  is  a  reason  why  it  should  not  be  fed  heavily 
to  stock  in  summer  in  the  warm  season. 

Food  has  an  energy  value.  When  a  substance  is  burned, 
the  resulting  energy  furnishes  power  to  do  work.  So  it  is 
Understood  that  what  we  call  a  therm  represents  the  energy 
or  work  necessary  to  raise  1530  tons  to  a  height  of  one  foot. 
Part  of  the  energy  of  the  food,  to  be  sure,  is  lost  in  the  process 
of  digestion,  partly  because  not  all  the  food  is  digested.  But 
much  of  it  is  saved,  and  this  is  used  to  keep  the  engine  of  the 
body  going.  The  horse  that  pulls  the  plow  or  hauls  a  load 
of  hay  gets  his  power  from  the  stored-up  energy  in  the 
food,  which  is  set  free  in  the  body  during  oxidation. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY      271 

The  heat  and  energy  value  of  food  has  been  worked  out 
by  scientific  men,  by  means  of  a  calorimeter.  This  is  a  very 
strong,  round,  hollow  steel  tube.  A  sample  of  a  food  is 
placed  in  this  and  burned,  and  the  amount  of  heat  given  off 
is  measured.  Another  instrument,  called  the  respiration 
calorimeter,  also  is  used,  in  which  a  live  animal  is  placed 
With  this  the  investigator  can  study  the  value  of  foods,  and 
can  make  a  complete  record  of  just  what  becomes  of  all  the 
energy  produced.  By  means  of  the  calorimeter,  one 
measures  the  heat  or  energy  used  in  labor,  or  thrown  off  from 
the  body,  or  passed  off  as  breath  through  the  mouth.  The 
application  of  this  knowledge  will  be  found  in  the  next 
chapter.  At  the  Pennsylvania  experiment  station  there  is  a 
respiration  calorimeter  made  to  hold  animals  as  large  as 
cattle.  In  this  there  have  been  conducted  very  interesting 
experiments  on  the  energy  value  of  foods  as  fed  to  cattle 
under  different  conditions. 

The  palatability  or  taste  of  food  is  considered  very  impor- 
tant in  feeding  animals.  If  the  food  is  pleasing  to  the  taste, 
the  animal  will  digest  it  better,  because  the  fluids  used  in 
digestion  will  flow  more  freely,  and  thus  act  more  completely 
on  the  food.  Nice  sweet  hay  is  greatly  relished,  while  that 
which  is  somewhat  mouldy,  or  has  not  been  properly  ripened, 
or  cured,  will  be  poorly  eaten  or  entirely  refused.  The 
animal  that  feeds  best  has  a  good  appetite,  and  eats  plenti- 
fully. A  great  Russian  experimenter,  who  studied  the  effects 
of  the  appetite  on  the  forming  of  the  digestive  fluids  in  dogs, 
learned  that  digestion,  appetite,  and  palatability  all  go 
together. 

The  use  of  water  by  the  animal  is  very  important. 
Water  may  keep  the  entire  body  in  a  healthy  condition. 
The  digestive  fluids  and  blood  need  given  amounts  of  water 
to  do  their  work  right,  and  water  is  needed  to  keep  the 


272  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

intestines  open  and  active,  and  to  regulate  body  temperature. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  farm  animals  need  a  certain 
amount  of  water  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  eaten.  For 
example,  a  horse  or  sheep  needs  from  two  to  three  pounds  of 
water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  consumed.  With  some 
foods  more  water  is  required  than  with  others.  The  cow 
that  eats  silage  will  drink  but  little  water  compared  with  the 
one  fed  dry  corn  fodder. 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  frequently  referred  to  in  discussing 
the  use  of  rations  in  practical  feeding.  This  term  is  used  to 
express  the  ratio  of  the  digestible  protein  to  the  digestible 
non-protein  substances  in  the  food,  or  the  combined  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  to  the  protein.  In  order  to  compare 
these  substances  on  an  equal  basis,  they  are  reduced  to  the 
same  heat  valuation.  Protein  and  the  carbohydrates  do  have 
the  same  heat  value,  but  a  pound  of  fat  is  equivalent  to 
about  2J4  pounds  of  either  one  of  these.  Consequently  the 
chemist,  in  order  to  place  them  on  an  equal  footing  in  heat 
value,  multiplies  the  digestible  fat  by  2J4-  The  nutritive 
ratio  is  found  by  adding  this  to  the  amount  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, and  then  dividing  the  sum  by  the  digestible  pro- 
tein content.  The  following  example  will  illustrate  the 
method  of  finding  the  nutritive  ratio: 

Oats  contain  10.7  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  50.3 
pounds  carbohydrates,  and  3.8  pounds  fat.  Then  the  ratio 
is  worked  out  in  this  manner.  3.8  pounds  fat  x  2%  =  8.55 
=  the  carbohydrate  equivalent  of  the  fat. 

50.3+8.55     =58.85 
10.7  )  58.85  (  5.5 
53.5 


535 
535 

Nutriti^/e  ratio,  1:5.5 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOODS  ON  THE  BODY      273 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  obtained  in  the  same  way  for  an 
entire  ration,  dividing  the  total  amount  of  the  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  fat  by  the  total  digestible  protein.  A 
ratio  of  1 :5.5  means  that  for  each  pound  of  digestible  protein 
in  the  ration  there  are  5.5  pounds  of  carbohydrates  or  its 
equivalent. 

A  narrow  nutritive  ratio  is  one  in  which  the  amount 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  not  large  in  proportion  to  protein, 
such  as  1:3,  or  1:5;  a  moderate  amount  would  be  1:8;  while 
a  wide  ratio  would  be  1 : 12.  Highly  concentrated  foods 
usually  have  narrow  ratios;  while  coarse  foods,  such  as 
roughages,  have  wide  ratios. 

DIGEST  THESE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "chewing  the  cud?" 

2.  How  is  food  taken  into  the  circulation? 

3.  What  is  the  capacity  of  the  stomach  of  the  ox? 

4.  What  digestive  fluids  are  present  in  the  stomach? 

5.  How  are  the  carbohydrates  changed  in  digestion? 

6.  What  is  a  "calorie"?    a  "therm"? 

7.  How  can  the  energy  value  of  food  be  shown? 

8.  Describe  the  calorimeter. 

9.  What  has  palat ability  of  food  to  do  with  digestion? 

10.  Explain  the  term  "nutritive  ratio." 

TAKE  NOTE  OF  THESE  THINGS 

11.  How  often  does  a  cow  chew  the  cud?    Watch  and  see. 

12.  If  an  opportunity  occurs,  measure  the  intestines  of  an  animal 
that  may  be  killed  on  the  farm.     Report. 

13.  Get  samples  of  what  you  consider  palatable  and  unpalatable 
foods  for  stock. 

14.  Figure  out  the  nutritive  ratio  of  three  plants  or  other  teed 
materials. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
FEEDING  STANDARDS:    THEIR  ORIGIN  AND   USE 

The  chemical  composition  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  easily 
learned  by  a  chemist.  He  takes  a  fair  sample  of  the  feed  and 
grinds  it  in  a  mill  to  a  powder  as  fine  as  flour.  He  then  takes 
a  small  sample  of  this  and  analyzes  it  in  the  laboratory.  He 
dries  a  weighed  portion  in  an  oven  and  finds  just  how  much 
water  it  contains,  and  what  the  percentage  of  dry  matter. 
Then  with  ether  he  dissolves  out  the  fat,  (ether  extract) 
and  weighs  this.  With  other  chemicals  he  also  separates  out 
the  protein,  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  the  fiber.  Another 
sample  of  the  feed  he  burns  to  learn  how  much  ash  or  mineral 
matter  remains.  Thus  the  chemist  is  able  to  determine  just 
how  many  pounds  of  each  of  these  substances  there  are  in  a 
given  amount  of  feed.  This  is  the  first  step  taken  by  the 
chemist  in  studying  the  value  of  foods  for  animals. 

The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  food,  the  simple 
chemical  analysis,  however,  did  not  show.  This  led  to  another 
step  forward  by  the  chemist,  whereby  he  learned  just  how 
much  of  the  total  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in  a  given 
food  an  animal  digested.  After  analyzing  a  sample  of  the  feed, 
as  much  of  it  was  fed  as  the  animal  would  eat  in  a  given  time. 
During  the  experiment,  all  the  solid  and  liquid  excrement 
passed  off  by  the  animal  was  collected,  and  samples  of  these 
were  also  analyzed.  Having  learned  how  much  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat  were  lost  in  the  manure,  the  chemist 
deducted  these  amounts  from  the  total  amounts  consumed 
in  the  feed,  and  the  difference  was  considered  the  amount 
digested  by  the  animal.  This  method  was  not  perfect,  but 


FEEDING  STANDARDS:  ORIGIN  AND  USE 


275 


it  was  a  great  step  in  advance.  It  enabled  chemists  to  figure 
out  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  digested  under  different 
conditions,  so  that  in  time  they  were  able  to  prepare  for  the 
use  of  farmers  what  is  called  "a  table  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents. "  This  table  showed  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter 
in  100  pounds  of  different  kinds  of  feed,  and  also  the  number 
of  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in 
every  100  pounds.  In  this  table,  for  convenient  reference, 
foods  of  similar  sorts  are  grouped  by  themselves.  For 
example,  roughage  is  all  classed  together,  and  this  is  divided 
into  three  groups:  as  dried  roughage,  fresh  green  roughage, 
and  roots  and  tubers.  Then  the  concentrates  are  arranged 
by  themselves,  and  these  are  also  divided  into  groups.  The 
following  is  taken  from  a  table  of  digestible  nutrients,* 
and  is  used  here  to  illustrate  what  has  just  been  explained. 
No  attempt,  however,  is  made  to  group  these  feeds. 


Total  dry 

Digestible 

nutrients  i 

a  100  Ibs. 

Name  of  feed. 

matter  in 
100  Ibs 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Corn  meal. 

850 

6  1 

643 

35 

Wheat  bran.    . 

88.1 

11.9 

420 

25 

Oats  

89.6 

8.8 

49.2 

4.3 

Cottonseed  meal  

93.0 

37.6 

21.4 

9.6 

Timothy  hay  

86.8 

2.8 

42.4 

1.3 

Kentucky  blue  grass  hay  ..... 
Wheat  straw 

86.0 
904 

4.4 

08 

40.2 
352 

0.7 
04 

Red  clover  —  green  

29.2 

2.9 

13.6 

0.7 

Alfalfa  —  green     .     ... 

28.2 

3.6 

12.1 

04 

This  little  table,  which  is  made  from  a  much  longer  one 
giving  the  digestible  nutrients  in  about  all  the  different 
kinds  of  food  the  American  farmer  is  likely  to  feed,  shows  that 
100  pounds  of  corn  meal  contains  85  pounds  of  dry  matter. 
In  this  85  pounds,  of  the  digestible  material  of  use  to  an 

*Feeds  and  Feeding.     W.  A.  Henry,  1912. 


276  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

animal,  we  find  6.7  pounds  of  protein,  64.3  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates, and  3.5  pounds  of  fat.  Let  us  now  look  back  and 
learn  how  figures  like  these  have  a  practical  value  to  the 
farmer. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  food  required  by  an  animal 
very  naturally  depends  on  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  its 
age,  and  use.  No  one  would  expect  to  feed  a  calf  the  same  as 
a  horse,  or  a  sheep  like  a  milch  cow.  Each  must  be  fed  so  as 
to  supply  its  needs  as  completely  as  possible.  As  might  be 
expected,  scientists  were  a  long  time  getting  the  necessary 
information  to  enable  men  to  understand  how  to  feed  so  as 
to  get  the  best  results. 

What  we  know  as  feeding  standards,  in  the  beginning 
were  very  simple  and  did  not  have  .any  real  value.  The 
working  out  of  useful  standards  began  in  Germany,  and 
German  chemists  have  done  more  than  any  one  else  to  furnish 
us  knowledge  on  this  subject.  The  first  plan  attempted  was 
to  give  meadow  hay  a  fixed  value,  and  then  measure  up  other 
feeds  with  that  as  the  standard.  That  plan  originated  about 
1810.  Some  fifty  years  later,  another  German  chemist 
suggested  that  animals  be  fed  special  amounts  of  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat,  according  to  certain  conditions. 
However,  his  plan  was  not  good,  because  he  did  not  take  into 
account  the  digestibility  of  the  food.  He  was  able  to  analyze 
a  food,  but  he  knew  nothing  of  how  much  of  each  nutrient 
the  animal  digested.  At  that  time  there  was  quite  a  deal 
of  information  of  the  chemical  composition  of  feeding  stuffs, 
but  the  digestibility  of  the  foods  had  not  been  figured  out. 
Then  about  1864,  another  German  chemist,  by  the  name  of 
Wolff,  proposed  that  animals  be  fed  daily  certain  amounts  of 
digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  such  as  were  actu- 
ally required  by  the  animals.  Wolff  was  able  to  propose 
this  because  he  had  conducted  many  feeding  tests  with  dif- 


FEEDING  STANDARDS:  ORIGIN  AND  USE  277 

ferent  animals,  and  had  learned  much  of  the  digestibility 
of  feeds.  His  studies  resulted  in  what  are  now  known  as 

The  Wolff  feeding  standards  for  farm  animals.  Two 
things  were  shown  by  this  great  scientist.  One  was  the 
digestibility  of  the  nutrients  in  different  feeding  stuffs,  and 
the  other  was  the  amount  of  each  of  these  required  by  farm 
animals  under  certain  conditions.  Wolff  found  that  ani- 
mals that  were  doing  no  labor,  that  were  not  being  fattened, 
neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  required  only  sufficient 
food  to  keep  the  body  and  the  internal  organs  healthy  and 
vigorous.  Such  an  animal  required  what  he  called  a  main- 
tenance ration.  A  young  animal  needed  a  growing  ration, 
and  cattle  intended  for  meat  required  a  fattening  ration. 
A  cow  producing  a  large  amount  of  milk  must  be  fed,  first 
to  supply  the  ordinary  needs  of  the  body,  such  as  might  be 
found  in  a  maintenance  ration,  and  besides  this,  she  must  be 
fed  still  more  to  enable  her  to  produce  the  milk  of  which  the 
food  is  the  source.  The  dry  cow  may  be  satisfied  on  a 
maintenance  ration  consisting  of  some  form  of  roughage 
only,  such  as  clover  hay  for  example;  but  if  she  is  yielding  a 
good  supply  of  milk,  then  rich  concentrates  must  be  fed,  if 
the  increased  demands  of  milk  production  are  to  be  met. 

Since  Wolff  first  made  known  this  most  important  dis- 
covery, many  other  chemists  have  experimented  in  the  same 
field.  Both  European  and  American  agricultural  chemists 
have  studied  the  science  of  feeding,  so  that  now  we  know 
much  more  than  did  the  student  or  farmer  in  the  days  of 
Wolff.  Animals  have  been  carefully  studied,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  respiration  calorimeter  has  resulted  in  some 
wonderful  investigations  in  the  fields  of  chemistry  and 
animal  nutrition.  The  work  of  Wolff  was  that  of  a  pioneer. 
For  many  years  Americans  relied  on  analyses  of  German 
feeds,  and  made  use  of  the  standards  that  came  to  us  from 


278 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Europe.  Today  we  are  able  to  use  a  table  of  digestible 
nutrients  which  is  based  on  the  composition  of  American 
feeds  as  studied  by  chemists  of  our  own  country.  Wolff's 
feeding  standards  in  improved  form  are,  however,  very  gen- 
erally used  by  American  feeders  as  the  best  yet  available. 
Wolff  used  1000  pounds  as  the  standard  of  weight  for  ani- 
mals, and  assumed  that  a  certain  amount  of  dry  matter, 
and  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  were 
needed  for  that  weight  under  given  conditions.  The  ani- 
mals were  classified  in  groups,  as  oxen,  fattening  cattle, 
milch  cows,  sheep,  horses,  etc.  Then  those  in  a  group  were 
classified  according  to  their  purpose;  as  for  example,  horses 
into  light,  medium,  and  heavy  work;  and  dairy  cows  in  four 
classes,  according  to  the  amount  of  milk  made  per  day. 
The  following  figures,  taken  from  Wolff's  feeding  standard, 
illustrate  its  arrangement: 

Pounds  required  daily  for  each  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 


Kind  of  animal 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat  • 

Horses,  light  work  .... 
Horses,  medium  work  . 
Horses,  heavy  work  .  .  . 

20 
24 
26 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

]:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

This  table  means,  for  instance,  that  a  horse  at  light  work 
weighing  1000  pounds  requires  20  pounds  of  dry  matter 
daily,  containing  1J^  pound  of  protein,  9J/2  pounds  of  car- 
bohydrates, and  0.4  pound  of  fat,  the  ration  having  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1:7. 

The  practical  application  of  Wolff's  feeding  standards 
has  been  recognized  on  thousands  of  farms  in  America,  and 
to  the  great  profit  of  those  adopting  them.  Probably  no 
class  of  people  has  studied  the  standard  more  carefully  than 


FEEDINQ  STANDARDS:  ORIGIN  AND  USE  279 

feeders  of  dairy  cattle,  and  it  is  among  herds  of  this  kind  that 
we  find  Wolff's  standards  most  commonly  used.  It  must  be 
understood  that  one  may  not  be  able  to  feed  his  stock  so  as 
to  follow  the  standard  perfectly,  but  there  is  no  trouble  in 
using  it  in  a  practical  way  as  a  guide.  One  may  feed  a  little 
less  or  a  little  more  protein  than  the  standard  recommends. 
When  the  animal  is  fed  about  right,  according  to  the 
standard,  then  a  balanced  ration  is  being  used;  or  one  which, 
without  waste,  most  perfectly  meets  the  needs  of  the  body. 
Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  balanced  ration  can 
be  relied  upon  for  giving  the  best  results. 

Energy  value  feeding  standards  have  recently  attracted 
attention.  Kellner,  a  German,  and  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby,  a 
noted  American  investigator  of  feeding  animals,  about  1908 
proposed  that  the  feeding  value  of  foods  be  measured  by 
their  energy  content,  as  shown  by  the  therms  of  net  energy 
they  supply.  These  men  accounted  for  the  loss  of  a  part  of 
the  food  energy  by  the  animal  in  the  mastication  of  its  food, 
and  in  the  operations  of  the  internal  organs,  etc.  The  energy 
left  after  digestion  they  called  the  net  energy  and  this  was 
used  by  the  animal  for  supplying  special  needs.  Armsby  has 
published  a  set  of  figures  showing  the  dry  matter,  digestible 
protein,  and  net  energy  value  in  therms  in  some  of  the  most 
common  feeding  stuffs.  He  has  also  prepared  a  maintenance 
ration  standard,  and  one  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
following  is  made  up  from  the  latter,  to  show  how  this  energy 
standard  is  arranged. 

CATTLE 

Age  'Live  weight  Digestible  protein  Net  energy  value 

3  mos.  275  Ibs.  1.10  Ib.  5.0  therms 

12  mos.  650  Ibs.  1.65  Ib.  7.0  therms 

24  mos.  1000  Ibs.  1.75  Ib.  8.0  therms 

This  table  shows  that  a  calf  three  months  old  and  weigh- 
ing about  275  pounds  requires  1.1  pound  of  digestible  pro- 


280  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

tein  per  day,  and  that  the  total  net  energy  in  the  ration  will 
equal  five  therms.  This  new  standard  has  hardly  been 
long  enough  before  the  public  to  be  well  known,  and  has 
been  used  but  little  in  practice. 

QUESTIONS  ON  KNOTTY  THINGS 

1.  How  does  a  chemist  analyze  a  feeding  stuff? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  digestible  nutrients? 

3.  How  are  feeding  tables  arranged? 

4.  Trace  the  history  of  the  feeding  standards. 

5.  Explain  meaning  of  a  maintenance  ration. 

6.  What  standard  of  weight  is  used  in  feeding  tables?    Suppose 
an  animal  weighs  more  or  less? 

7.  Discuss  the  practical  use  of  Wolff  standards. 

8.  What  are  the  energy  value  feeding  standards? 


CHAPTER  XX 


HOW  TO  CALCULATE  A  RATION 

The  method  of  calculating  a  ration  is  very  simple,  and 
can  easily  be  put  in  practice  by  anyone  who  knows  how  to 
add,  multiply,  and  subtract.  There  is  nothing  complicated 
about  it.  The  fact  that  many  farmers  with  only  common 
school  training  figure  out  the  rations  for  their  stock,  is  evi- 
dence enough  to  support  this  statement.  Many  men  feeding 
dairy  cows  study  carefully  the  composition  and  cost  of  feeds, 
and  then  figure  out  the  best  rations  available,  that  will 
agree  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  standard. 

The  first  step  in  calculating  a  ration  is  to  find  out  the 
amounts  of  dry  matter,  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  in 
the  ration  one  is  feeding,  or  is  planning  to  feed.  In 
this  chapter,  only  the  most  common  feeds  used  over 
much  of  the  United  States  will  be  considered.  We  will 
figure  out  the  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  1000 
pounds  and  making  about  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day.  Let  us 
plan  to  feed  this  cow  a  daily  ration  say  of  10  pounds  red 
clover  hay,  30  pounds  corn  silage,  5  pounds  corn-and-cob 
meal,  and  3  pounds  bran.  To  use  a  good  system  in  the 
starting  of  the  work,  we  will  arrange  the  different  parts  in 
proper  order  for  study,  which  is  as  follows : 

Ration  for  1000  pound  dairy  cow  producing  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day. 


Feeds 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Red  clover  hay,  10  Ibs. 
Corn  silage,  30  Ibs  

Corn-and-cob  meal,51bs 
Bran,  3  Ibs  

282  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  second  step  in  calculating  the  ration  will  be  to  find 
out  how  much  dry  matter,  and  digestible  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat,  occur  in  each  of  the  amounts  of  the  dif- 
ferent feeds,  and  write  these  figures  in  the  proper  blank 
places  in  the  table.  Turning  now  to  page  387,  in  the  back  of 
the  book,  you  will  find  Table  A,  showing  the  amount  of 
dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  a 
number  of  different  feeding  stuffs.  The  composition  of  each 
of  those  to  be  fed  this  cow  can  be  easily  found.  Let  us  take 
red  clover  hay  for  our  first  calculation. 

Red  Clover  Hay 

DRY  MATTER  PROTEIN    CARBOHYDRATES    FAT 
100  Ibs.  contain    84.7  Ibs.        7.1  Ibs.          37.8  Ibs.          1.8  Ib. 
Then    10  Ibs.  contain       8.47  Ibs.      0.71  Ibs.          3.78  Ibs.        0.18  Ib. 

Taking  corn  silage  next,  we  find  that 

DRY  MATTER  PROTEIN     CARBOHYDRATES    FAT 
100  Ibs.  contain     26.4  Ibs.        1.4  Ibs.          14.2  Ibs.         0.7  Ib. 
Then    30  Ibs.  contain       7.92  Ibs.      0.42  Ibs.          4.26  Ibs.        0.21  Ib. 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal 

DRY  MATTER  PROTEIN   CARBOHYDRATES    FAT 
100  Ibs.  contain     84.9  Ibs.      4.4   Ibs.        60.    Ibs.         2.9  Ibs. 
Then      5  Ibs.  contain       4.24  Ibs.    0.22  Ibs.          3.0  Ibs.         0.145  Ib. 

Coming  last  to  brant  we  find  that 

DRY  MATTER    PROTEIN  CARBOHYDRATES     FAT 
100  Ibs.  contain     88.1  Ibs.      11.9  Ibs.        42.0  Ibs.         2.5  Ibs. 
Then     3  Ibs.  contain       2.64  Ibs.      0.36  Ibs.        1.26  Ibs.       0.075  Ib. 

If  we  have  copied  these  figures  as  soon  as  worked  out, 
into  the  blank  places  fixed  for  them  in  the  table  on  page  281, 
then  we  shall  have  the  following,  after  we  have  added 
up  the  totals: 


HOW  TO  CALCULATE  A  RATION 


283 


Ration  for  1000  pound  dairy  cow  producing  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day. 


Feeds 

Dry 

matter 

Digestive  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Red  clover  hay,  10  Ibs.  . 
Corn  silage  30  Ibs 

8.47 
7.92 

4.24 
2.64 

0.71 
0.42 

0.22 
0.36 

3.78 
4.26 

3.00 
1.26 

0.18 
0.21 

0.145 
0.075 

1:8 
1:5.7 

Corn-and-cob   meal,   5 
Ibs.  ... 

Bran  3  Ibs  

Total  

23.27 
29.00 

5.73 

1.71 
2.50 

0.79 

12.30 
13.00 

0.61 
0.50 

"TTTt 

Wolff  standard  
A  shortage  of  

.70 

tExcess. 

If  we  look  in  Table  B,  on  page  388,  in  the  back  of  this 
book,  we  will  find  the  Wolff  feeding  standards  for  some  of  the 
different  farm  animals,  with  1000  pounds  live  weight  as 
a  basis.  In  looking  over  this,  we  notice  that  a  1000-pound 
dairy  cow  producing  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day  requires  daily 
29  pounds  dry  matter,  2.5  pounds  protein,  13  pounds  carbo- 
hydrates, 0.5  pound  fat,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.7. 

A  comparison  of  this  standard  with  the  ration  fed,  shows 
that  our  proposed  ration  is  short  of  dry  matter  by  5.73 
pounds;  of  protein,  by  0.79  pound;  of  carbohydrates,  by 
0.70  pound;  but  has  an  excess  of  0.11  pound  fat.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 8  is  also  too  wide. 

The  third  step  in  computing  the  ration  will  be  to  correct 
or  improve  it  so  that  it  will  compare  more  favorably  with  the 
required  standard.  If  we  can  add  some  home-grown  con- 
centrate that  is  strong  in  protein,  but  lacking  carbohydrates, 
it  may  balance  things.  It  does  not  make  so  much  dif- 
ference about  the  amount  of  dry  matter,  so  long  as  we  do 
not  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  standard.  Neither  is  it  likely 
that  the  ration  will  contain  too  much  fat.  However,  it  is 


284  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

desirable  to  adjust  the  protein  and  carbohydrates  fairly 
closely  in  amounts  to  those  in  the  standard.  We  might  use 
cotton-seed  meal,  or  oil  meal,  as  a  trial,  to  balance  up  this 
ration;  but  to  use  a  home-grown  product  that  is  getting  more 
and  more  common,  we  will  use  soy  beans,  though  they  must 
be  fed  cracked  or  ground.  Let  us  then  add  3  pounds  of  the 
soy  beans  to  the  rest  of  the  ration.  Turning  to  the  table  of 
the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs,  on  page  387,  we  find  that: 
.  Soy  Beans 

DRY  MATTER  PROTEIN     CARBOHYDRATES    FAT 
100  Ibs.  contain      88.3  Ibs.      29.1  Ibs.          23.3  Ibs.        14.6  Ibs. 
Then      3  Ibs.  contain       2.65  Ibs.      0.87  Ibs.          0.7  Ibs.         0.44  Ib. 

Adding  this  to  the  total  in  the  original  ration,  we  have  the 
following: 

DRY  MATTER  PROTEIN  CARBOHYDRATES       FAT 

Total  original 23.27  Ibs.      1.71  Ibs.        12.30  Ibs.       0.61  Ib. 

3  Ibs.  soy  beans  . . .     2.65  Ibs.      0.87  Ibs.          0.70  Ibs.       0.44  Ib. 

Total 25.92  Ibs.      2.58  Ibs.        13.00  Ibs.        1.05  Ib. 

The  standard 29.00  Ibs.      2.50  Ibs.        13.00  Ibs.       0.50  Ib. 

Excess  or  deficit  —3.08  Ibs.      +.08  Ibs.    Correct  +.55  Ib. 

Nutritive  ratio,  1 : 5.9.    Standard,  1 : 5.7. 

This  ration  shows  a  shortage  in  dry  matter  of  3  pounds, 
a  very  slight  increase  of  protein,  and  quite  an  increase  in 
fat.  These  differences,  however,  are  not  important.  The 
nutritive  ratio  agrees  fairly  well  with  the  standard.  There- 
fore we  may  consider  this  ration  properly  calculated  and  cor- 
rected to  suit  the  animal's  needs. 

The  adjustment  of  rations  to  the  standard  is  not  usually 
difficult.  An  increase  in  dry  matter  and  carbohydrates  is 
easily  secured  with  the  hays  or  most  of  our  common  feed 
stuffs.  If  a  ration  needs  most  attention  in  the  protein,  then 
some  concentrate  such  as  soy  beans,  cotton-seed  meal, 
linseed  oil  meal,  or  tankage  may  be  selected.  The  cost  of  the 


HOW  TO  CALCULATE  A  RATION  285 

feed  is  an  important  matter,  and  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered. Some  feeding  stuffs,  like  cotton-seed  meal,  oil 
meal,  or  tankage,  that  are  not  common  in  some  localities, 
are  easily  purchased  and  shipped  in  by  freight,  and  may  often 
be  used  with  much  advantage  and  profit.  These  are  high- 
class  concentrates,  and  are  extensively  purchased  by  feeders 
of  stock  in  countries  where  but  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  feed  is  grown,  as  in  England  and  Holland,  for  example. 

The  regulation  of  the  ration  to  the  animal's  weight  is 
not  difficult.  If  this  cow  had  weighed  750  pounds  instead 
of  1000,  then  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter  and  of  each 
nutrient  would  need  to  be  decreased  about  one  fourth, 
or  25  per  cent.  If  the  ration  was  for  a  cow  weighing  1250 
pounds,  then  this  would  require  an  increase  in  the  ration  of 
about  one  fourth.  One  does  not  change  the  proportions  in 
the  feeding  combination.  It  is  simply  a  proportionate 
increase  or  decrease  in  amount  fed,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
animal. 

Are  the  Wolff  standards  reliable?  is  a  question  quite 
likely  to  be  asked.  Years  ago,  when  the  German  tables 
were  first  introduced  to  America,  they  were  criticised  by  some 
of  our  students  of  feeding.  Several  persons  showed  by 
experiments  that  where  animals  were  fed  the  maintenance 
rations  proposed  by  Wolff,  that  they  would  gain  in  weight. 
Of  course  an  animal  should  neither  lose  nor  gain  on  such  a 
ration.  Professor  Haecker  of  Minnesota,  and  other  experi- 
menters, showed  that  Wolff  proposed  to  feed  more  dry  matter 
and  protein  than  was  needed  by  the  dairy  cow,  under  certain 
conditions.  Haecker  also  considered  that  dairy  cows  should 
be  fed  according  to  both  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  milk. 
In  general,  investigations  in  America  have  shown  that  less 
protein  is  required  for  dairy  animals  than  is  given  in  the  Ger- 
man standards.  Probably  two  pounds  of  protein,  or  very 


286  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


slightly  over,  are  required,  as  compared  with  2J/£  recom-* 
mended  in  the  Wolff  table.  These  standards,  however,  are 
a  guide  to  intelligent  feeding.  One  is  not  expected  to 
measure  out  to  each  animal  an  exact  amount  of  dry  matter 
and  nutrients  to  just  agree  with  the  standards,  but  rather 
to  so  combine  the  feeds  that  they  will  furnish  the  balanced 
ration  reasonably  well. 

Other  feeding  standards  than  Wolff's  have  been  pro- 
posed. Kellner,  a  noted  German  student  of  animal  nutrition, 
has  proposed  a  standard  in  which  starch  is  the  unit  of  value. 
Armsby,  a  leading  American  investigator,  has  offered  a 
standard  which  is  based  on  the  energy  or  heat  value  of  food 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapter.  He  has  prepared  a 
table  showing  the  values  of  certain  feeds  in  protein  and  net 
digestible  energy,  expressing  the  energy  value  in  therms. 
He  has  also  prepared  other  tables  showing  what  is  required 
as  a  maintenance  standard  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
and  also  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep.  The  important 
feature  of  the  work  of  the  more  recent  investigators  is  that 
they  figure  that  each  animal  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
nutriment  for  maintenance,  after  making  allowances  for 
losses  of  energy  in  digestion  and  assimilation.  They  then 
add  to  the  nutrients  of  maintenance  enough  more  to  meet  the 
special  body  needs,  to  produce  growth,  milk,  wool,  or  energy 
for  external  work.  These  changed  views  on  standards  have 
been  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the  digestion  calorimeter 
in  which  animals  as  large  as  full-grown  cattle  are  placed. 
With  this  apparatus,  the  experimenter  can  measure  up  the 
losses  from  the  body  through  respiration  and  through  heat 
and  moisture  from  the  body  surface.  Such  information  as 
this  was  not  available  at  the  time  Wolff  introduced  his  feed- 
ing standards.  Thus  far,  but  little  practical  application  of 
*/he  energy  standard  of  value  has  been  made  by  feeders 


HOW  TO  CALCULATE  A  RATION  287 

This  subject,  however,  is  being  carefully  studied,  and  later 
these  standards,  or  revised  ones,  may  come  into  general  use. 

SOME  RATION  PROBLEMS 

1.  Given  a  1000-pound  horse  at  medium  work.    He  is  fed  10 
pounds  oats,  10  pounds  timothy  hay,  and  10  pounds  ear  corn  a  day. 
How  does  this  agree  with  Wolff's  standard? 

2.  A  steer  weighing  1500  pounds,  nearly  fattened,  consumes  daily 
20  pounds  clover  hay,  18  pounds  corn-and-cob  meal,  and  5  pounds 
cotton-seed  meal.    Is  this  satisfactory? 

3.  Make  up  a  ration  for  a  500-pound  brood  sow,  and  figure  out  how 
it  compares  with  the  standard. 

4.  Feed  2  pounds  alfalfa  hay  a  day  to  a  fattening  sheep  weighing 
100  pounds.    How  much  and  what  kind  of  grain  will  you  feed  to  adjust 
the  ration  to  standard? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE 

The  coarse  feeds  include  the  grasses  and  clovers  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  the  cereals  (as  forage),  straws,  silage,  roots, 
rape,  cabbage,  or  any  similar  feeds,  whether  green  or  dried 
as  hay.  Anything  of  a  bulky  nature,  of  which  an  animal 
must  eat  considerable  to  obtain  much  nutriment,  is  a  coarse 
feed.  In  the  dried  form,  like  hay  or  corn  stover,  the  western 
farmer  has  been  accustomed  to  refer  to  them  as  fodder,  or 
roughage.  In  some  sections  of  our  country,  farmers  have 
certain  feeds  that  are  more  common  than  in  other  parts  of 
the  country.  Farmers  in  the  North,  for  example,  look  to  red 
clover  or  timothy  hay  for  standard  roughage;  in  Alabama, 
cow  pea  hay  or  Japanese  clover  is  common;  while  in  Kansas 
and  Colorado,  alfalfa  is  a  standard.  Some  plants,  however, 
are  more  commonly  grown  than  others,  and  so  will  receive 
special  attention  in  a  brief  way  in  this  chapter. 

PASTURES,  GREEN  GRASSES,  AND  HAYS 

The  value  of  the  grasses  depends  upon  their  development. 
When  grass  is  young  and  very  green,  especially  in  spring,  it 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  water,  and  is  greatly  relished 
by  stock.  As  it  matures,  the  amount  of  protein  and  total 
nutriment  increases.  Usually  we  find  the  food  constituents, 
especially  protein,  most  digestible  when  the  plant  is  in  full 
Moorn.  After  that  period  the  stalk  and  leaves  grow  more 
•voody  and  less  nutritious;  and  if  left  to  develop  for  long  after 
blooming,  neither  the  pasture  nor  the  hay  is  eaten  with  trie 
greatest  relish. 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE 


289 


Kentucky  blue  grass,  or  June  grass,  is  one  of  the  most 
nutritious  and  best  pasture  grasses.  It  grows  extensively 
in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  though  sparsely 
in  the  Gulf  states.  No  other  grass  is  more  relished  for  spring 
pasture  by  grazing  animals.  The  roots  spread  out  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  form  a  beautiful  sod.  In  moist 
weather  and  under  fair  conditions,  the  grass  furnishes  an 
abundance  of  fine  leaves,  supplying  splendid  pasture.  Dur- 
ing the  summer,  many  pastures  dry  up  and  look  as  though 


Fig.  153.     On  an  Ohio  blue  grass  pasture.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

dead,  but  fall  rains  revive  them,  and  they  again  become  green 
and  vigorous.  In  some  sections,  stock  is  pastured  on  the 
dead  blue  grass  of  winter,  not  much  other  feed  being  given, 
and  with  very  good  satisfaction.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is 
not  usually  valued  for  hay,  but  is  known  universally  as  a. 
valuable  pasture  grass. 

Timothy  is  a  standard  grass  commonly  grown  on  the 
heavier  soils  of  the  North.  It  is  frequently  used  for  pasture, 
and  makes  a  highly  valued  hay  for  horses.  As  a  pasture 
grass,  timothy  is  not  the  best.  It  does  not  stand  trampling 

19— 


290 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


as  well  as  some  others,  having  small  bulbs  at  the  ground,  with 
fine  roots  just  beneath  them,  which  are  injured  by  heavy 
pasturing.  This  grass  is  generally  somewhat  coarse,  but  if 
it  is  thickly  seeded,  more  plants  grow  to  the  acre,  and  as  a 
result  they  are  finer  and  more  palatable.  Timothy  cut  and 
cured  immediately  after  the  pollen  falls  from  the  blossom 
makes  the  best  hay.  Under  usual  conditions,  this  is  an 
excellent  hay  for  horses,  but  not  so  well  suited  to  cattle  and 

sheep.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  tim- 
othy hay  is  bright  and 
free  from  dust. 

Red  top  is  a  fine  grass 
in  appearance,  and  makes 
an  excellent  pasture.  It 
is  quite  common  in  cer- 
tain sections  North  and 
South,  but  is  not  gener- 
ally abundant  in  the 
cooler  grass-growing  sec- 
tions, probably  doing  better  on  the  damper  lowlands 
than  elsewhere.  It  makes  a  very  palatable  and  nu- 
tritious hay. 

Orchard  grass  is  common  in  some  sections  in  the  north- 
eastern parts  of  the  United  States.  It  grows  in  tussocks, 
or  bunches,  so  that  the  turf  from  this  plant  is  somewhat 
uneven;  hence  is  not  liked  so  well  as  some  other  grasses  for 
pasture.  It  starts  up  early  in  spring,  and  has  a  strong,  rather 
coarse  growth,  with  hardly  as  smooth  a  stem  as  timothy.  It 
is  not  quite  as  nutritious  as  timothy,  ranking  just  below  it. 
It  may  be  grown  to  advantage  with  red  clover,  and  often 
is,  in  tile  Middle  West.  It  is  best  suited  for  horses  and  cattle, 
though  should  be  cut  as  hay  before  getting  very  ripe. 


Fig.  154.  A  good  cover  for  the  stack 
of  hay.  Photograph  by  courtesy  Prof.  A.  G. 
McCall. 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE  291 

Millet  is  grown  in  a  number  of  varieties.  Hungarian 
grass  is  the  smallest  form,  and  reaches  a  height  usually  of 
about  two  feet,  with  a  single,  small,  bristly  head.  This 
makes  very  fair  hay.  German  Millet  is  somewhat  larger 
and  coarser  than  Hungarian,  and  has  a  larger  head,  though 
of  the  same  type.  Both  of  these  millets  may  be  sown  in 
early  summer,  and  often  they  make  a  very  rapid  growth  and 
furnish  an  abundant  hay  crop  in  a  short  season.  Millets  are 
not  generally  used  in  pastures.  When  heavily  seeded  they 
make  very  good  hay  for  cattle  and  sheep.  Caution  should 
be  used  in  feeding  this  hay  to  horses,  as  it  is  thought  by  some 
to  cause  kidney  trouble  if  fed  very  heavily.  The  millets 
may  be  grown  over  much  of  the  country. 

Brome  grass  has  been  cultivated  some  in  the  Northwest, 
where  it  has  been  used  as  pasture  and  for  hay.  At  the  North 
Dakota  station  it  is  used  for  permanent  pasture,  and  is 
ranked  as  much  richer  in  protein  than  timothy.  It  also 
yields  about  the  same  quantity  of  feed  per  acre  as  timothy. 

Bermuda  grass  in  the  South  is  a  standard  pasture.  This 
plant  grows  a  perfect  network  of  roots  near  the  surface,  and 
covers  the  ground  as  with  a  mat.  It  is  a  very  nutritious 
pasture  plant,  and  has  a  most  valuable  place  in  Southern 
agriculture.  It  will  stand  heavy  pasturing,  and  may  be 
used  from  March  to  November.  If  grown  on  rich  soil,  very 
heavy  cuttings  of  hay  may  be  expected.  Bermuda  grass 
contains  over  6  per  cent  protein  and  about  45  per  cent  car- 
bohydrates, excelling  in  protein  any  other  common  grass. 

Mixed  grasses  are  frequently  sown  for  pasture  in  the 
Northern  states,  timothy,  red  top,  orchard  grass,  and  clover 
forming  the  usual  combination.  Prairie  grass  is  usually  a 
mixture,  and  somewhat  resembles  timothy  in  feeding  value. 


29?  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

THE  CEREALS  AS  FORAGE 

Indian  corn  is  perhaps  the  most  common  plant  grown  on 
the  American  continent.  Except  in  the  arid  lands,  it  thrives 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Gulf  to  Canada. 
It  is  the  universal  crop  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  furnishes 
more  food  from  an  acre  of  ground  than  any  other  common 
crop.  It  is  keenly  relished  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  both 
in  the  green  state  and  as  dried  roughage.  No  other  plant  in 
summer  furnishes  so  much  succulent  feed  as  Indian  corn. 
Grown  somewhat  thickly,  the  stalks  are  finer  than  common, 


Fig.  155.     Cutting  the  corn  crop  with  a  corn  harvester,  which   ties  the  corn 
in  bundles.     Photograph  by  courtesy  Minn.  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 

and  give  a  large  yield  of  either  green  fodder  or  dried  forage 
that  is  quite  completely  eaten  by  cattle  and  horses.  In  the 
North,  corn  produces  a  smaller  plant  than  in  the  South,  and 
gives  a  smaller  yield  of  forage.  Very  large,  heavy  stalks, 
such  as  are  frequently  seen  in  the  corn  belt,  are  not  so 
desirable  for  feeding  as  those  of  more  moderate  size.  About 
one-third  of  the  digestible  food  is  found  in  the  stalk,  and  two- 
thirds  in  the  ear.  The  complete  cured  plant  and  ear  is  com- 
monly known  as  corn  fodder,  and  after  the  ear  is  removed 
it  is  called  corn  stover.  The  dry  stover,  with  the  help  of  a 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE  293 

little  grain,  is  valuable  for  roughing  stock  through  the  winter, 
if  much  fattening  is  not  desired.  It  is  a  bulky  feed,  and 
should  not  be  fed  heavily  to  animals  from  which  much  is 
expected.  The  plant  contains  the  largest  amount  of  nutri- 
ment when  the  kernels  on  the  ear  are  beginning  to  glaze  or 
harden,  but  it  may  be  cut  for  feeding  at  any  time  from  the 
appearance  of  the  silk  to  final  ripening.  Fodder  left  out 
in  the  shock  during  the  winter  is  injured  more  or  less  in 
feeding  value,  losing  in  nutriment  through  mould  and 
weathering. 

Oats  do  best  in  the  cooler  sections  of  the  North,  but  so- 
called  winter  oats  do  well  in  the  South.  This  crop  may  be 
pastured  or  may  be  cut  and  fed  green  when  of  sufficient 
maturity.  In  New  England  many  farmers  grow  oats  to 
cut  and  cure  as  hay  when  the  grain  is  in  the  milk.  Oat 
straw  is  one  of  the  best,  both  in  nutritive  value  and  in  being 
relished  by  stock.  A  combination  of  oats  and  Canada  field 
peas,  from  equal  amounts  of  seed  sowed  early  in  spring, 
makes  a  very  desirable  green  crop  for  feeding  in  June  and 
July. 

Rye  has  been  much  used  both  as  fall  and  spring  pasture. 
It  mats  up  into  a  thick  growth,  and  can  be  grazed  with 
advantage  to  the  grain  yield  if  not  pastured  too  long  or  too 
heavily,  or  it  may  be  cut  green  and  fed  in  the  stable  or  feed 
lot.  Many  people  grow  rye  and  turn  stock  on  it  to  harvest 
it  entirely.  Hogs  are  frequently  turned  in,  and  they  con- 
sume both  stalk  and  grain.  Dairy  cattle  should  not  be  fed 
rye,  except  soon  after  milking,  otherwise  a  strong  and 
unpleasant  odor  in  the  plant  will  be  likely  to  give  a  bad 
flavor  to  the  milk.  Rye  straw  is  a  very  poor  feed,  having 
less  than  one  per  cent  protein  and  a  great  deal  of  fiber. 

Wheat  and  barley  may  be  used  after  the  same  manner 
as  rye,  and  have  much  the  same  value,  though  they  are  not 


294  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

pastured  as  advantageously  as  the  rye.  Barley  makes  a 
nice  soft  hay,  and  is  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  Of  the 
cereal  straws,  barley  ranks  close  to  oats  as  one  of  the  best. 

THE  LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND  HAY 

Legumes,  which  include  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  beans,  peas, 
etc.,  grow  easily  over  much  of  the  United  States.  They 
are  valuable  chiefly  because  of  the  large  percentage  of  pro- 
tein they  contain,  and  from  the  fact  that  they  are  highly 
relished  by  live  stock.  The  lime  in  the  legumes  is  also  a 
valuable  feature  of  these  plants,  for  it  is  needed  in  building 
up  the  animal  frame.  The  legumes  have  an  extensive  root 
development,  and  have  the  power  of  fixing  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air  in  the  soil,  through  the  agency  of  a  kind  of  bacteria 
that  are  found  especially  in  knots  or  nodules  located  on  the 
roots.  These  nodules  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  where  legumes 
are  grown,  the  land  is  increased  in  fertility  and  improved  in 
texture. 

Red  Clover  is  extremely  common  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  One  hundred  pounds  of  the  dried  hay  contain 
about  7  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  38  of  carbohy- 
drates. As  a  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  it  is  considered  ex- 
cellent. As  a  pasture  it  ranks  high;  and  in  the  corn  belt, 
a  combination  of  clover  pasture  in  the  late  summer  and  fall, 
supplemented  with  ear  corn,  is  a  favorite  ration  for  hogs. 
Brood  sows  and  sheep  do  well  on  clover  pasture.  A  large 
crop  of  green  feed  may  be  cut  from  a  good  stand  of  clover 
during  the  season,  and  this  makes  splendid  feed  for  all 
kinds  of  farm  stock.  At  the  Wisconsin  station,  as  much 
as  26  tons  of  green  feed  were  obtained  in  3  cuttings  from 
an  acre  of  red  clover.  If  to  be  used  for  hay,  red  clover  should 
be  cut  when  the  blossoms  are  in  full  development,  at  which 
time  it  contains  the  most  nutriment.  Clover  should  be 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE  295 

cured  carefully  and  protected  from  the  wet  as  much  as  pos- 
sible after  cutting.  When  clover  hay  is  well  cured  and 
reasonably  free  from  dust,  it  may  be  fed  to  horses  with  advan- 
tage. 

Alfalfa  is  rapidly  becoming  a  very  popular  plant  in 
America.  In  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West  it  has  long 
been  a  leading  crop.  In  recent  years,  its  cultivation  has 
been  greatly  extended,  so  that  now  it  is  grown  with  success 
over  much  of  the  United  States,  north  and  south,  and  also 


Fig.  156.     In  a  field  of  red  clover  in  Indiana.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

in  some  parts  of  Canada.  From  two  to  five  crops  a  year 
may  be  harvested.  At  the  New  Jersey  experiment  station, 
5  cuttings  yielded  26J/2  tons  of  green  forage,  equivalent  to 
almost  6  tons  of  dry  matter  per  acre.  Alfalfa  is  a  plant  that 
is  rich  in  protein,  and  the  dried  hay  is  often  compared  with 
wheat  bran  in  composition  and  feeding  value.  The  fact  is, 
alfalfa  is  so  close  to  bran  in  protein  and  carbohydrate  con- 
tent that  in  some  sections  of  the  West  it  is  ground  and  fed 
in  a  meal-like  form.  Large  quantities  of  special  feed  stuffs 
are  made  of  this  alfalfa  meal,  and  are  sold  in  nearly  all  parts 


296  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

of  the  country.  Alfalfa  makes  fine  pasturage,  especially  for 
sheep  and  hogs,  but  it  is  not  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  undesirable  to  pasture  it  much,  as  heavy  trampling 
injures  the  crowns  of  the  roots.  Neither  should  it  be  pas- 
tured very  closely.  A  combination  of  alfalfa  pasture  and 
corn  makes  a  splendid  ration.  When  sheep  or  hogs  are 
turned  on  this  pasture,  they  should  first  have  a  good  fill  of 
hay,  and  should  be  kept  constantly  on  the  green  feed  from 
then  on,  by  which  method,  bloat  will  be  prevented.  When 
made  into  hay,  the  plants  should  be  cut  at  about  the  time 


Rgi  157.    A  field  of  alfalfa  hay  at  Ohio  State  University.     Photograph  by  the 

author. 

new  shoots  begin  to  appear  about  the  crown  of  the  root,  and 
when  the  buds  are  beginning  to  open.  The  plant  should  be 
cured  so  as  to  hold  as  much  bright  green  leaf  as  possible. 
As  hay,  this  plant  is  unsurpassed.  It  is  suited  to  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  All  these  animals  like  it,  and  do 
well  on  it.  Corn  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  to  give  with  it.  In 
the  West,  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  fattened  on  corn  and 
alfalfa.  Brood  sows  do  well  on  alfalfa  hay  and  a  little  corn. 
This  plant  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  feeds  used  today  on 
the  stock  farm. 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE 


297 


The  soy  bean  thrives  over  a  wide  extent  of  territory,  and 
is  meeting  with  considerable  favor  as  a  forage  crop,  and  also 
for  its  seed.  This  plant  is  rich  in  protein,  and  combines 
unusually  well  with  corn.  Hogs  have  done  well  when  pas- 
tured upon  soy  beans.  It  is  also  grown  to  some  extent  with 
corn,  for  the  purpose  of  har- 
vesting the  two  plants  as  one 
crop  for  the  silo.  Under  some 
conditions  this,  combination 
gives  very  nearly  a  balanced 
ration. 

The  cow  pea  is  mostly 
grown  in  the  South.  It  is 
planted  to  some  extent  in  the 
middle  Mississippi  Valley, 
although  it  does  not  usually 
ripen  seed  in  the  North.  It 
produces  a  great  amount  of 
forage,  which  is  much  valued 
for  grazing  and  for  plowing 
under.  The  peas  are  rich  in 
protein,  and  the  yield  is  very 

satisfactory.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  grown 
in  the  South,  for  grazing,  for  hay,  and  for  seed.  The  hay 
may  be  used  to  some  extent  as  a  substitute  for  bran. 

Canada  field  peas  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
make  a  valuable  green  crop  for  soiling,  especially  if  planted 
with  oats  early  in  spring.  A  seeding  of  oats,  followed  imme- 
diately by  one  of  peas  on  the  same  land,  using  about  one  and 
a-half  bushel  of  each  seed  to  the  acre,  gives  one  of  the  very 
best  green  feeds  for  early  and  middle  summer  use.  This  com- 
bination may  be  safely  fed  to  farm  animals  generally,  and 


A.  GPhMcSSf    by 


298 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


they  all  like  it.     If  desired,  it  can  easily  be  cured  into  a  very 
good  grade  of  hay. 

SILAGE 

Silage  is  a  feed  more  or  less  green  and  succulent,  pre- 
served in  what  is  called  a  silo.  Green  feed  is  cut  and  stored 
in  the  silo,  where  it  goes  through  a  process  of  fermentation, 
with  slight  loss  of  its  protein  and  carbohydrates.  Under 
fair  management  this  loss  need  not  be  over  ten  per  cent. 


Fig.  159. 


A  cement  silo  on  a  dairy  farm. 
Farmer. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of   The 


The  silo  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  things  on  the  stock 
farm,  for  in  it  feed  can  be  stored  more  economically  than  in 
any  other  way. 

Silage  may  be  made  from  a  variety  of  plants,  but  at  the 
present  time  corn  is  used  nearly  altogether.  That  is  because 
it  combines  the  largest  yield  of  the  most  easily  stored  forage 
of  all  crops  generally  relished  by  stock.  Sorghum,  clover, 
cow  peas,  soy  beans,  and  alfalfa  are  sometimes  used.  With 
the  exception  of  sorghum,  these  plants  are  not  always  stored 
in  the  silo  with  satisfaction,  as  they  may  heat  badly  and  sus- 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE  299 

tain  considerable  loss  in  food  value,  unless  well  handled. 
For  this  reason,  corn  silage  only  will  be  discussed  here. 
Sorghum  and  kaffir  corn  may  be  preserved  in  the  silo  equally 
well  with  corn. 

The  chief  value  of  silage  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  enables 
the  stockman  to  give  his  cattle  and  sheep,  especially,  a  suc- 
culent feed  during  the  months  of  the  year  when  the  pastures 
are  dead  and  no  green  feed  is  obtainable.  If  one  has  plenty 
of  silage,  then  he  is  quite  independent  of  summer  drouth. 
In  fact,  many  owners  of  dairy  cattle  feed  silage  the  year 
round.  Because  of  its  tender,  succulent  nature  and  the  con- 
venience of  handling,  it  is  well  adapted  to  all  seasons. 

The  corn  crop  is  usually  harvested  when  the  kernels 
are  turning  into  the  glaze.  It  then  is  run  through  a  forage 
cutter  and  cut  into  pieces  about  half  an  inch  long.  In  this 
condition  it  is  spread  about  in  the  silo  and  allowed  to  settle. 
As  usually  made,  it  contains  about  \y%  per  cent  protein. 
The  dry  matter  in  silage  is  worth  no  more  than  that  in  corn 
fodder,  chemically  considered,  but  cattle  especially  seem  to 
respond  to  this  feed,  with  increase  of  milk  flow  and  a  better 
condition  of  body,  than  when  on  dry  fodder.  Many  feeding 
experiments  have  shown  that  corn  silage  is  most  desirable 
for  dairy  cows,  and  very  favorable  reports  are  being  made  on 
its  use  in  beef  production.  It  is  well  suited  to  sheep.  Horses 
will  do  well  on  it  when  fed  with  moderation.  For  hogs, 
however,  silage  is  too  bulky  and  unsatisfactory  and  is  rarely 
fed  to  them,  and  then  with  little  benefit  in  most  cases.  In 
general,  hay  and  some  grain  should  be  fed  with  silage.  For 
cattle,  from  25  to  35  pourids  a  day  is  a  common  ration 
while  for  sheep  from  3  to  5  pounds  daily  is  ample. 

Rape  is  a  plant  that  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the 
turnip  and  radish,  and  is  grown  for  its  succulent  leaves.  It 
is  used  exclusively  for  pasturage  for  sheep  and  hogs  and  is 


300  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

well  suited  to  the  cooler  sections  of  the  country  or  to  cool 
seasons.  In  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States  rape 
is  an  extremely  popular  pasture  plant  among  sheep  breeders. 
Three  or  four  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  do  for  a  seeding, 
and  stock  may  be  turned  on  the  field  after  the  leaves  have 
become  large  and  succulent.  Rape  will  stand  considerable 
frost  without  damage.  At  the  Michigan  station,  15  acres 
of  rape  pastured  128  lambs  for  7J^  weeks,  during  which  time 
they  gained  2890  pounds.  From  this  trial  it  was  established 
that  one  acre  of  rape  pastured  nine  lambs  seven  weeks,  pro- 
ducing 203  pounds  of  increase.  For  sheep  and  hogs,  rape 
furnishes  a  most  valuable  late  summer  and  fall  pasture.  It 
may  also  be  sown  in  early  spring,  so  that  we  may  secure  the 
pasture  during  the  entire  growing  season. 

ROOT  CROPS 

Although  all  farm  animals  relish  roots,  these  crops  can- 
not usually  be  grown  with  profit  in  America,  on  account  of 
the  high  cost  of  labor.  In  Canada  and  northern  United 
States,  roots  may  be  grown  with  great  success  on  fertile 
soils,  but  south  of  latitude  40,  as  a  rule  they  do  not  yield  so 
well. 

The  mangold  or  mangel-wurzel,  a  large,  coarse  beet,  is 
the  most  easily  and  cheaply  grown  of  the  roots  used  for  stock 
feeding.  The  roots  consist  of  about  90  per  cent  water,  and 
of  the  dry  matter,  only  1  per  cent  or  even  less  is  protein. 
A  yield  of  10  tons  per  acre  is  not  uncommon.  The  chief 
virtue  of  the  roots  is  that  they  are  succulent  and  are  most 
palatable,  and  keep  the  digestive  organs  of  the  animal  in  a 
healthy,  open  condition.  They  are  usually  fed  after  being 
run  through  a  pulping  or  slicing  machine,  which  puts  the 
root  in  nice  shape  for  feeding.  Many  feeders  in  England 
and  Scotland,  where  roots  are  extensively  used,  mix  the 


COARSE  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUB  801 

sliced  root  with  chaffed  hay  or  straw  and  grain,  which  makes 
a  fine  ration.  One  may  feed  cattle  as  high  as  100  pounds  of 
roots  a  day,  but  as  a  rule  about  40  or  50  pounds  is  best. 
Sheep  do  especially  well  on  roots,  and  in  Great  Britain  and 
Canada  they  are  commonly  fed  to  these  animals,  from  5  to 
7  pounds  per  day. 

Carrots  are  slightly  more  nutritious  than  mangels,  but 
are  more  difficult  to  grow,  and  do  not  yield  so  large  a  crop. 
They  are  raised  especially  for  horses,  and  are  fed  to  them  with 
more  success  than  other  roots. 

Swede  turnips,  flat  turnips,  and  rutabagas  are  all  good 
for  stock  and  have  much  the  same  wholesome  effect  as 
mangels  and  carrots. 

CAN  YOU  TELL 

1.  Why  the  feeding  value  of  a  grass  depends  on  its  stage  of  develop- 
ment? 

2.  Why  timothy  is  a  standard  grass  for  horses? 

3.  Why,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  millet  should  be  fed  with  caution? 

4.  Where  and  why  Bermuda  grass  is  popular? 

5.  Why  Indian  corn  is  so  valuable  to  the  farmer? 

6.  How  the  legumes  add  to  soil  fertility? 

7.  Something  about  alfalfa? 

8.  Wherein  lies  the  special  value  of  silage? 

9.  Why  roots  are  not  grown  more  for  stock  hi  America? 

10.  How  many  pounds  of  roots  a  day  should  be  fed  the  different 
kinds  of  farm  animals? 

SUGGESTIONS 

11.  Bring  In  small  samples  of  different  kinds  of  roughage  used  on 
the  farm  on  which  you  live. 

12.  Bring  to  the  class  about  a  half-pound  sample  of  average  hay 
such  as  you  are  commonly  using  on  the  farm.    Compare  with  the  other 


302  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

13.  Find  the  nitrogen-carrying  nodules  on  legume  roots. 

14.  Feed  some  green  rye  to  a  milch  cow  three  hours  before  milking. 
How  did  this  affect  the  milk? 

15.  Learn  who  puts  up  the  best  hay  in  your  neighborhood,  study 
his  methods  and  report  on  them. 

16.  How  many  silos  are  there  in  your  township  or  section,  and  to 
what  animals  is  the  silage  fed? 


CHAPTER  XXII 
CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUE 

A  concentrated  feeding  stuff  is,  as  one  would  naturally 
suppose,  just  the  opposite  of  roughage.  The  two  most  com- 
mon forms  are  seen  in  the  grains  of  cereals  and  some  other 
agricultural  plants,  and  in  the  by-products  of  mills,  where  the 
cereals  are  converted  into  flour,  breakfast  foods,  starch,  etc. 
There  are  some  other  concentrates,  that  are  products  of  such 
large  manufacturing  industries  as  the  linseed  and  cotton-seed 
oil  mills,  and  the  packing  houses.  These  are  all  called  con- 
centrates, because  as  a  rule  they  lack  in  coarse,  fibrous 
structure,  and  contain  larger  percentages  of  protein  and 
starchy  matter  than  do  forage  plants.  For  example,  the 
grain  of  corn  is  a  concentrate,  one  hundred  pounds  of  which 
contains  fully  three  times  as  much  digestible  protein  and 
twice  as  much  digestible  carbohydrates  as  are  found  in  corn 
fodder.  Using  another  illustration,  gluten  feed,  which  is 
made  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacturing  of  starch  from 
corn,  contains  three  times  as  much  protein  as  does  the  same 
weight  of  corn. 

The  cost  of  concentrated  feeds  is  always  much  greater 
than  that  of  roughages.  In  fact,  the  cost  of  most  feeds  sold 
on  the  market  increases  as  the  amount  of  protein  in  them 
increases.  Feeds  like  cotton-seed  meal  and  tankage,  con- 
taining large  amounts  of  this  nutrient,  are  very  high-priced, 
although  that  does  not  mean  that  they  are  expensive  feeds 
to  use.  Sometimes  the  price  of  a  certain  concentrate  is  low 
on  account  of  a  glutted  market,  or  high  because  the  supply  is 
exhausted.  If,  for  example,  the  flax-seed  crop  of  Russia  and 
America  is  very  poor,  then  linseed  oil  meal  is  apt  to  be  high- 


804  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

priced,  and  perhaps  would  cost  more  than  it  is  really  worth. 
There  is  no  special  rule,  however,  about  that  matter,  and 
sometimes  business  combinations  control  the  prices  of  such 
feeds,  so  that  one  must  pay  without  regard  to  the  actual  sup- 
ply on  the  market.  The  following  concentrates  are  quite 
commonly  used,  and  are  those  which  one  should  know  some- 
thing about. 

CEREALS    AND    THEIR    BY-PRODUCTS 

Indian  corn  is  our  most  common  grain.  It  is  a  food  rich 
in  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  is  especially  valued  for  fatten- 
ing animals.  It  is  often  called  a  heating  food,  on  account  of 
its  heat  or  energy  value.  It  is  greatly  relished  by  all  farm 
animals,  and  may  be  fed  on  the  ear,  shelled,  or  milled  into 
pure  meal,  or  the  entire  ear  may  be  ground  into  what  we  call 
corn-and-cob  meal.  While  corn  is  rich  in  fattening  material, 
it  lacks  in  ash,  or  mineral  matter  ,  so  that  when  fed  alone  it 
furnishes  a  rather  one-sided  ration.  Except  during  the  last 
part  of  the  fattening  period,  it  should  be  fed  along  with  some 
feed  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  such  as  bran,  middlings,  etc. 

There  are  different  races  of  corn.  In  the  more  northern 
parts  of  the  country,  as  in  New  England,  a  small  to  medium- 
sized  plant,  with  a  somewhat  slender  ear,  covered  with  hard, 
flinty  kernels,  is  grown.  This  is  called  flint  corn.  Over 
most  of  the  country  a  larger  plant,  with  thicker  ears,  covered 
with  longer  kernels,  dented  at  the  outer  end,  is  grown.  This 
is  known  as  dent  corn,  and  makes  up  most  of  the  corn  crop  of 
the  United  States.  Besides  these  two,  we  have  sugar,  or 
sweet  corn,  which  has  a  rough-surfaced  ear  that  may  be  very 
small  or  of  medium  size,  covered  with  kernels  that  when  dry 
are  somewhat  shrivelled  and  tough.  This  sweet  corn  con- 
tains some  glucose  sugar,  which  accounts  for  the  pleasant 
taste  of  the  grain. 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  305 

Corn  meal  is  the  ground  grain  without  the  cob.  The 
usual  run  of  such  meal  on  the  farm  is  rather  coarse  and  is 
often  cracked  or  crushed  rather  than  finely  ground.  In 
some  sections,  the  farmer  calls  it  "corn  chop."  Ordinarily, 
it  does  not  pay  to  grind  the  grain,  although  it  is  more  com- 
pletely digested  than  is  the  whole  kernel,  but  the  expense 
of  grinding  usually  offsets  any  advantage,  except  for  some 
special  purpose. 

Corn-and-cob  meal  is  the  kernel  and  cob  ground  up 
together.  If  the  cob  is  not  too  coarse,  such  feed  is  excellent 
for  cattle  and  sheep.  Feeding  experiments  have  shown  that 
100  pounds  of  corn-and-cob  meal  fed  to  these  animals  will 
give  returns  equal  to  100  pounds  of  pure  corn  meal.  The 
reason  given  for  this  is  that  the  ground  cob  makes  the  meal 
more  porous,  allowing  the  juices  of  the  stomach  in  digesting 
the  food,  to  mix  more  easily  with  the  corn  and  porous  cob 
meal,  than  with  the  pure  meal,  which  is  inclined  to  become 
heavy  and  soggy.  This  feed  is  not  good  for  hogs,  unless 
ground  very  fine,  as  it  contains  too  much  woody  fiber.  It  is 
better  for  cattle. 

Gluten  feed  is  a  product  of  factories  where  starch  is  made 
from  corn.  It  consists  of  what  is  left  of  the  grain  after  the 
starch  and  germ  have  been  removed,  and  is  quite  rich  in 
digestible  protein,  containing  about  20  per  cent.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  a  mill  product  of  much  value 
in  balancing  a  ration  for  these  animals.  Gluten  meal, 
another  product  of  the  starch  factory,  richer  in  protein  than 
gluten  feed,  was  formerly  sold  separately.  At  present  it  is 
usually  ground  in  with  the  gluten  feed. 

Hominy  feed  is  a  by-product  of  the  hominy  mill.  It 
resembles  a  fine  whitish  corn  meal  when  made  from  white 
corn,  and  consists  of  the  hulls  and  other  parts  of  the  corn 
grain  ground  up  together.  Its  feeding  value  is  quite  the 

20 — 


306  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

same  as  corn  meal,  and  it  is  excellent  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs,  all  eating  it  with  a  relish. 

Wheat  is  not  usually  fed  to  animals,  unless  it  is  very  low 
in  price.  It  becomes  somewhat  pasty  when  ground  in  the 
mouth,  as  everyone  knows  who  has  lived  in  a  wheat  country. 
It  contains  about  10  per  cent  digestible  protein,  and  belongs 
in  the  class  of  feeds  fairly  rich  in  this  substance.  All  animals 
are  fond  of  wheat,  but  it  should  be  crushed  or  cracked  before 
feeding  to  horses,  cattle,  or  hogs.  This  is  not  necessary  with 
sheep.  Wheat  tends  to  make  animals  muscular  or  lean  and 
hence  its  feeding  value  is  greatly  improved  by  the  addition 
of  an  equal  amount  of  corn. 

Wheat  bran  is  the  outer  covering  of  the  kernel.  In  the 
big  flour  mills,  the  kernel  is  crushed  to  obtain  the  flour,  and 
the  thin  outer  fibrous  covering  is  removed  as  bran.  This 
contains  about  12  per  cent  protein,  and  is  a  standard  con- 
centrate for  feeding  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  We  say  that 
bran  is  a  laxative,  and  keeps  the  digestive  system  cool  and 
open,  a  very  necessary  thing  with  farm  animals.  Stockmen 
have  always  regarded  bran  as  especially  valuable.  It  has 
recently  been  found  by  chemists  to  contain  an  acid  substance 
called  phytin,  which  causes  beneficial  effects  on  the  digestion. 
Wheat  bran  is  well  suited  to  mix  with  corn  or  oats,  or  may 
be  fed  alone  to  stock.  Many  horsemen  feed  it  in  the  form 
of  a  thick,  wet,  warm  slop,  called  "bran  mash."  Bran  is 
even  more  of  a  muscle  and  bone  making  food -than  wheat, 
and  most  students  of  feeding  use  it  for  young,  growing 
animals.  There  are  brans  made  from  spring  wheat,  such 
as  is  grown  in  the  Northwest,  and  from  winter  wheat. 
There  is  not  much  difference  between  them,  but  the  bran 
from  winter  wheat  usually  contains  somewhat  more  flour 
than  that  from  spring  wheat. 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  307 

Wheat  middlings  and  shorts  are  also  by-products  from 
flour  mills.  Middlings  are  much  finer  than  shorts,  and 
contain  more  flour.  Shorts  is  sometimes  bran  re-ground, 
hence  is  finer  than  bran.  Bran,  middlings,  and  shorts  are 
much  alike  in  digestible  protein  content,  containing  around 
12  per  cent.  Middlings  and  shorts  contain  rather  more 
carbohydrates  than  does  bran.  Middlings  are  especially 
valuable  as  a  hog  feed,  being  used  with  corn  or  corn  meal. 
Good  results  have  been  secured  by  feeding  hogs  a  mixture  of 
half  corn  meal  and  half  middlings.  On  the  market,  middlings 
usually  sell  for  about  two  dollars  more  a  ton  than  bran.  If 
one  can  buy  bran  or  middlings,  he  will  not  need  shorts,  which 
are  too  fine  for  bran  and  too  coarse  for  middlings. 

Wheat  screenings  usually  consist  of  shrunken,  broken 
grains  of  wheat,  mixed  with  weed  seeds,  pieces  of  straw, 
etc.  The  value  of  screenings  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
grain  in  it.  It  has  been  very  extensively  fed  to  fattening 
sheep  in  America,  especially  in  the  Northwest,  near  the  flour 
mills.  Sheep  do  well  on  screenings,  and  if  one  can  buy  at  a 
cheap  enough  price,  it  is  a  good  feed  to  use. 

Oats  are  a  standard  feed  for  farm  animals  in  all  agri- 
cultural countries.  They  contain  about  10J/£  per  cent 
digestible  protein,  as  compared  with  about  8J^  in  wheat,  but 
have  less  carbohydrates  and  more  fat  than  the  wheat.  It 
has  often  been  thought  that  oats  contained  some  substance 
that  gave  life  and  snap  to  animals  beyond  that  furnished  by 
any  other  grain,  but  chemists  have  not  been  able  to  find  this 
mystical  something.  Still,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  oats 
do  produce  a  most  excellent  effect  on  the  horse,  far  better 
than  any  other  grain.  Some  oats  are  more  chaffy  than 
others.  Northern  grown  oats  are  plumper  and  weigh  more 
than  Southern  oats.  In  fact,  oats  do  better  in  the  cooler 
sections  of  our  country,  and  yield  far  larger  crops.  For 


308  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

horses  no  other  food  is  so  widely  used  in  America  or  Europe. 
It  is  not  likely  to  cause  indigestion,  and  is  a  safe  feed.  It  is 
best  suited  to  cattle  and  hogs  when  crushed  or  ground,  while 
sheep  will  do  equally  well  on  it  in  any  form.  For  young, 
growing  animals  it  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  we  have;  for  like 
bran,  it  helps  to  build  up  a  strong,  muscular  frame.  Often 
oats  are  very  expensive,  and  their  purchase  should  depend 
considerably  on  the  cost  and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

Oat  hulls  are  very  poor  as  a  feed  stuff,  for  they  contain 
but  little  nutriment,  and  are  too  largely  fiber.  They  are  fre- 
quently mixed  with  commercial  feed  stuffs  to  act  as  a  "filler." 

Barley  is  a  very  hard  small  grain,  that  as  commonly 
grown  is  covered  with  a  strong  husk.  It  is  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, and  has  slightly  more  protein  than  corn.  It  is 
not  commonly  fed  to  farm  animals  in  America,  but  is  very 
popular  in  northern  Europe.  Horses  will  do  well  on  barley, 
while  barley  meal  as  a  feed  for  swine  ranks  very  high  in 
Canada  and  Europe.  Experiments  have  shown  that  pigs 
fed  barley  make  a  superior  quality  of  bacon.  It  should  be 
crushed  or  ground  before  feeding. 

Brewers'  grains  are  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
beer.  Barley  is  put  through  a  process  of  sprouting,  after 
which  it  is  dried  and  the  sprouts  rubbed  off.  The  remaining 
mass  of  barley  kernels  is  malted  barley.  This  is  then  soaked 
in  tanks,  and  the  sugar  or  malt,  formed  in  the  kernel  by  the 
sprouting,  is  extracted,  and  is  fermented  to  make  lager  beer. 
What  is  left  is  wet  brewers'  grains.  These  in  the  wet  form 
contain  about  75  per  cent  water  and  5  per  cent  digestible 
protein.  They  are  relished  by  cattle,  and  are  much  fed  in 
the  vicinity  of  cities  where  breweries  are  located.  In  sum- 
mer they  become  sour  and  putrid,  unless  eaten  a  few  days 
after  making.  Dried  brewers'  grains  are  made  by  removing 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  309 

the  moisture  in  big  steel  drums.  This  leaves  a  dry  grain, 
with  about  20  per  cent  digestible  protein  and  30  per  cent  car- 
bohydrates, which  makes  a  valuable  feed  for  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep.  It  has  been  used  with  success  as  a  substitute  for 
oats  as  a  feed  for  horses,  when  oats  were  high  in  price. 

Rye  is  quite  similar  to  wheat  in  composition.  It  makes  a 
good  feed  for  the  same  purposes  that  wheat  is  used.  It  has 
a  somewhat  stronger  flavor  than  other  grains,  and  when  fed 
to  dairy  cows,  tends  to  give  an  objectionable  taste  to  milk. 
If  fed,  it  should  be  given  right  after  milking. 

Linseed  oil  meal  is  the  product  of  flax  seed.  This  seed 
contains  about  30  per  cent  oil.  The  manufacturers  of  linseed 
oil  grind  the  seed,  and  extract  the  oil  by  pressure,  leaving 
long,  brown,  board-like  cakes,  as  a  by-product.  This  is 
broken  up,  or  ground,  and  fed  as  linseed  oil  cake  or  linseed 
oil  meal.  It  contains  about  30  per  cent  digestible  protein, 
and  slightly  more  of  carbohydrates.  All  farm  animals  are 
most  fond  of  this  product,  and  it  is  used  to  some  extent  by 
many  feeders.  It  softens  the  skin  of  animals  and  gives  a 
silky  lustre  to  the  hair.  It  is  often  used  in  so-called  con- 
dition powders,  to  make  up  much  of  the  bulk  of  them.  It 
should  form  from  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  the  ration,  accord- 
ing as  the  need  exists  for  a  highly  concentrated  feed  te 
balance  the  ration. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  a  by-product  of  the  cotton-seed  oil 
mills.  About  one-fifth  of  the  seed  is  oil.  The  usual  custom 
is  to  remove  the  hard  covering  or  hull  of  the  seed,  and  then 
press  a  dark  brownish  oil  from  the  meats,  which,  when  re- 
fined, becomes  an  attractive  golden  yellow.  The  by-product 
remains  as  long,  yellow,  board-like  cakes,  that  contain  almost 
40  per  cent  digestible  protein.  It  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
centrated and  valuable  feeds  that  we  have.  Small  particles 
of  hulls  are  to  be  found  in  the  cake,  and  the  greater  the 


310  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

amount  of  hulls  the  poorer  the  grade  in  protein  of  the  cake. 
It  is  best  suited  to  cattle  above  calf  age,  and  for  sheep.  Com- 
bined with  corn  silage  or  stover,  and  with  some  shelled  or  ear 
corn,  it  makes  an  excellent  balanced  ration.  Cotton-seed 
meal  is  not  a  safe  feed  for  pigs  or  calves,  as  it  has  a  poisonous 
effect,  which  may  result  in  serious  sickness  and  death.  Cot- 
ton-seed meal  is  often  one  of  the  most  economical  protein  foods 
that  the  cattle  feeder  can  buy,  considering  the  character  of  the 
nutriment  it  contains.  It  is  fed  to  some  extent  in  the  South, 
along  with  the  hulls,  which  largely  consist  of  woody  fiber, 
and  fair  gains  in  steer  feeding  have  come  from  this  combina- 
tion. Milk  from  cows  fed  cotton-seed  meal  produces  a 
harder  butter  than  when  corn  is  used.  The  fat  of  steers  that 
have  been  fed  cotton-seed  meal  is  also  harder  than  that  of 
steers  fed  corn  meal.  One  can  easily  see  that  in  warm  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  this  feed,  butter 
will  ship  better  than  it  might  if  some  other  feed  were  used. 

Distillers'  grains  are  a  product  of  the  manufacture  of 
alcoholic  liquor,  for  which  rye,  corn,  barley,  and  sometimes 
oats,  are  used.  The  grain  is  mashed  in  water,  and  the  starch 
is  changed  into  sugar,  and  later  into  alcohol  through  the 
influence  of  yeast.  The  mashed  grain  left  is  very  watery; 
but  if  the  water  is  removed  by  heat,  a  dried,  brown,  chaffy 
product,  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  results.  This  is  known  under 
various  names  as  dried  distillers'  grains,  Ajax  flakes,  Atlas 
meal,  Biles'  grains,  etc.  Grains  made  from  rye  are  inferior 
to  those  from  corn.  There  is  quite  a  difference  in  the  pro- 
tein values  of  these  grains.  They  are  especially  popular  with 
feeders  of  dairy  cattle  in  making  up  a  mixed  grain  ration. 
They  have  a  strong  odor  that  reminds  one  of  the  smell  of 
hops,  and  some  animals  dislike  it  on  account  of  this  peculiar 
smell.  As  yet  this  feed  has  been  but  little  fed  in  America, 
except  to  cattle. 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS 


311 


Tankage  or  meat  meal  is  a  product  of  the  beef  packing 
house.  It  is  made  from  inferior  pieces  of  meat  and  the  trim- 
mings, and  from  diseased  carcasses.  This  meat  is  dried,  and 
sterilized  in  air-tight  tanks,  and  is  then  ground  to  a  meal. 
It  is  very  rich  in  protein,  containing  usually  from  50  to  60 
per  cent,  and  11  or  12  per  cent  fat.  It  is  especially  relished 
by  hogs,  and  since  1900  has  been  much  used  in  the  West 
along  with  corn  to  balance  up  the  ration.  A  mixture  of  one 
part  tankage  and  6  to  10  of  corn  gives  excellent  results  in 
hog  feeding.  While  this  feed  is  high-priced,  it  is  no  doubt  one 


Fig.  160.  Two  lots  of  hogs  fed  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station.  The 
smaller  were  fed  corn  alone  in  dry  lot,  and  the  others  corn  and  tankage.  Photo- 
graph by  courtesy  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

of  the  most  important  additions  to  the  rations  of  swine.  The 
glossy  coat  of  hair  and  hearty  appetite  of  the  tankage-fed 
hog  are  evidences  of  the  value  of  this  feed. 

Milk  is  not  strictly  a  concentrated  food,  but  will  be 
briefly  referred  to  here.  As  drawn  from  the  cow  it  contains 
about  87J^  per  cent  water  and  12J/2  per  cent  solid  material. 
Of  the  solids,  about  3J/2  to  4  per  cent  is  usually  fat  and  4  to  5 
per  cent  milk  sugar.  Milk  is  a  most  important  food  for  all 
young  animals  during  the  earlier  stages  of  growth.  If  new 
milk  is  fed,  the  young  animals  lay  on  flesh  easily,  and  may 


312  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

take  on  a  strong,  muscular  development.  If  the  fat  is  taken 
from  the  milk,  and  skim  milk  is  fed,  a  good  frame  may 
develop,  but  the  animal  will  not  look  so  well  fed,  the  skin 
will  not  be  so  mellow,  nor  the  hair  so  glossy.  Pigs  of  any 
age  will  do  well  on  a  combination  of  milk  and  a  grain  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  which  ration  makes  a  very  high-class  pork. 
Buttermilk  has  much  the  same  feeding  value  as  skim  milk, 
there  being  almost  no  fat  in  either.  One  should  be  careful 
to  feed  only  clean  milk,  produced  under  healthful  conditions. 
One  should  not  feed  skim  milk  from  a  creamery,  unless  it  is 
first  pasteurized,  so  that  disease  germs  may  be  more  or  less 
completely  destroyed. 

SOME  CONCENTRATED  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  concentrates? 

2.  Why  is  corn  so  valuable? 

3.  Which  is  better  for  cattle, — corn  meal  or  corn-and-cob  meal? 
Why? 

4.  What  special  value  has  bran? 

5.  How  do  oats  rank  as  feed  for  horses? 

6.  How  are  brewers'  grains  made? 

7.  Why  recommend  Unseed  oil  meal? 

8.  What  can  you  say  about  cotton-seed  meal? 

9.  Why  feed  tankage? 

10.  What  is  the  average  composition  of  milk? 

HINTS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

11.  Collect  samples  of  concentrates  fed  in  your  neighborhood,  and 
label  with  name,  composition,  and  price. 

12.  Make  up  a  sample  ration,  specifying  on  a  card, — 

(a)  Pounds  of  each  concentrate  used. 

(b)  Cost  of  each  concentrate. 

(c)  Nutritive  ratio. 

(d)  Kind  of  stock  for  which  prepared. 

13.  Learn  what  your  neighbors  are  feeding  for  concentrates,  cost 
and  how  used.    Can  you  suggest  improvements? 

14.  Who  feeds  tankage,  under  what  conditions,  and  with  what 
results? 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  intelligent  care  of  farm  animals  is  the  key  to  suc- 
cessful management  and  profitable  results.  This  includes 
dealing  with  all  sorts  of  conditions  and  problems,  such  as  the 
practical  stockman  repeatedly  meets  with;  injuries,  sickness, 
and  disease  and  methods  of  treatment.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  discuss  these  in  detail.  There  are,  however,  various 
important  things  connected  with  the  care  of  animals  that 
may  fittingly  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  student  and 
stockman. 

Personal  attention  to  the  care  of  animals  on  the  part  of 
the  owner  or  responsible  manager,  is  highly  important.  Too 
many  men  leave  the  care  of  the  stock  to  hired  help  who  are 
often  indifferent  or  careless.  This  always  results  unsatis- 
factorily. That  kind  of  management  often  results  in  over  or 
under  feeding,  losses  from  disease  or  injury  that  might  have 
been  prevented,  poor  physical  condition  of  the  stock,  etc. 
One  of  the  most  successful  handlers  of  cattle  in  America, 
a  man  with  an  international  reputation,  gives  a  most  careful 
personal  supervision  to  his  animals,  from  early  morning  until 
night.  In  his  annual  sales  the  physical  condition  of  his 
animals  and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  handled  cause 
much  favorable  comment.  This  is  very  largely  due  to  the 
personal  attention  he  gives  his  cattle  from  day  to  day. 

The  feeding  and  watering  of  animals  at  regular  periods 
when  not  on  pasture,  is  of  the  first  importance.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  feed  most  kinds  of  stock  twice  each  day,  morning 
and  evening.  Horses,  however,  are  usually  fed  three  times. 


314  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

A  common  custom  is  to  feed  grain  and  roughage  to  cattle 
morning  and  evening,  with  roughage  at  noon.  The  more 
painstaking,  thoughtful  feeders  often  feed  more  than  twice, 
being  careful  as  to  the  amount  fed.  A  general  policy  should 
be  followed  of  feeding  as  much  as  an  animal  will  eat  up  clean, 
with  good  appetite,  and  the  hunger  then  satisfied.  The 
hours  of  feeding  depend  upon  special  conditions.  Many 
persons  begin  feeding  about  5  A.  M.,  and  give  the  evening 
feed  about  twelve  hours  later.  No  rule,  however,  can  be 
made  on  this  point.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  water  avail- 


Fig.  161.     Steers  eating  roughage  at  the  Ohio  Station.     Photograph  by  courtesy 
Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

able  to  stock,  of  which  they  can  drink  as  often  as  desired. 
Horses  are  usually  watered  either  before  or  after  feeding, 
three  times  a  day.  The  frequency  of  watering  will  depend 
on  the  weather.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  should  be  watered 
twice  daily  in  the  cooler  weather,  and  in  summer  it  is  well 
to  have  available  in  stall  or  yard  plenty  of  water  in  pail  or 
trough. 

The  grooming  of  live  stock  becomes  almost  necessary 
under  the  more  restricted  conditions  of  stabling.  Horses 
and  cattle  kept  in  stable  and  exposed  to  dirt  and  manure, 
become  more  or  less  filthy.  Dust  and  dirt  on  the  skin  tend 


CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  315 

to  close  up  the  pores,  which  to  a  certain  extent  affects  the 
disposition  and  health  of  the  animal.  As  a  matter  of  per- 
sonal pride  the  high-class  owner  of  stock  desires  to  have 
his  animals  look  clean.  If  he  is  a  good  horseman,  he  knows 
that  a  well-groomed  horse  looks  and  feels  better  than  one 
that  is  not  clean.  One  of  the  most  unpleasant  sights  to  be 
seen  in  winter  and  spring  in  many  barns  is  the  cattle  with 
thighs  and  flanks  covered  with  a  hard  coat  of  manure,  that 
does  not  disappear  until  the  hair  is  shed.  This  of  course 
means  that  no  grooming  is  done  or  little  effort  made  to  keep 
the  stock  clean.  It  is  surprising  what  excellent  results  will 
come  from  the  use  of  a  brush  and  curry  comb  for  a  very  short 
time,  even  a  minute  a  day  per  head.  Grooming  is  not  always 
practicable;  neither  is  it  necessary,  as  for  example,  in  the 
West  in  the  open  feed  lot,  where  cattle  that  have  never  been 
even  halter  broken  are  cared  for  in  large  numbers  by  a  few 
men. 

The  sanitation  of  the  stable,  or  the  health  conditions 
about  live  stock,  are  receiving  much  attention  these  days. 
Men  can  no  longer  sell  milk  in  most  towns  and  cities  unless  it 
comes  from  stables  that  are  approved  as  sanitary  by  milk 
inspectors,  representing  the  consumers'  interests.  This 
means  that  the  stables  must  be  properly  furnished  with  fresh 
air  and  that  the  buildings  and  yards  must  be  kept  clean  and 
free  from  filth.  Where  the  stable  is  sanitary,  it  is  provided 
with  a  reasonable  amount-  of  light  and  pure  air,  and  the  walls 
are  whitewashed  or  are  kept  clean  and  attractive  by  some 
other  good  method.  One  of  the  best  methods  for  making 
the  stable  interior  sweet  and  clean  at  least  expense  is  to  spray 
whitewash  on  the  ceilings  and  walls  once  or  twice  each 
season.  In  stables  producing  what  is  called  certified  milk, 
the  floors  are  daily  washed  clean.  In  all  cases,  the  manure 
should  be  removed  from  the  stable  every  day.  The  next 


316 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


best  thing  is  to  use  plenty  of  litter,  or  bedding,  to  absorb 
the  liquid  manure.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  hogs 
under  clean  conditions.  The  losses  from  hog  cholera  would 

be  far  less  if  the  pig 
quarters  were  kept  rea- 
sonably clean.  Floors  for 
stock  to  stand  upon  should 
be  tightly  made,  whether 
of  planks  or  other  mate- 
rial. Cement  is  at  present 
very  popular,  though  not 
entirely  satisfactory,  ow- 
ing to  its  cold,  hard,  and 

fig.  162.     The  interior  of  a  sanitary  stable.      t±          j  ?  r™ 

Photograph  by  the  author.  often  damp  surface.    The 

liberal  use  of  land  plaster 

or  slaked  lime  in  the  stable  is  excellent,  for  these  absorb 
bad  odors  and  sweeten  the  air. 

The  value  of  shelter  for  live  stock  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed, and  in  the  past  many  stockmen  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  keep  stock  in  buildings  well  protected  from  cold. 
The  most  recent  views  are  that  close,  warm  shelter  is  unde- 
sirable. Captain  Hayes,  a  noted  authority  on  horses,  writing 


fnr 

New  York 


The  ^r"?!  °f  I,  ™odern  st<>ck  barn,  with  first-class  arrangements 
Photograph    by  courtesy  of  Oakleigh  Thorne,  of 


CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


317 


on  the  subject  of  the  temperature  of  the  stable,  says:*  "I 
have  had  many  opportunities  in  Russia  of  comparing  the 
relative  healthiness,  during  very  cold  weather,  of  hot  stables 
and  of  those  kept  at  a  natural  temperature.  In  large  towns 
in  Russia  the  practice  throughout  the  winter  is  to  bave 
stables  at  a  temperature  of  from  50  to  60  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, the  difference  between  the  temperature  inside  and  out- 
side being  not  infrequently  over  80  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


Fig.  164.     A    sheltered    feed    lot.     Photograph    by    the    author. 

Consequently,  influenza,  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and 
diseases  of  the  organs  of  breathing,  especially  roaring  among 
big  horses,  are  common  in  these  abodes.  In  the  Russian 
cavalry  remount  depots  an  entirely  different  course  is  pur- 
sued; for  the  stables  at  these  places  are  immensely  roomy, 
very  lofty,  and  are  ventilated  so  freely  and  kept  so  clean, 
that  even  in  the  early  mornings  before  the  horses  are  taken 
'out,  the  air  inside  is  free  from  any  suspicion  of  closeness. 

*Stable  Management  and  Exercise,  1900,  p.  199. 


318 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


It  is  instructive  to  note  that  the  horses  kept  in  them  maintain 
their  health  during  the  extremely  cold  winter  in  the  same 
excellent  manner  as  they  do  in  summer." 

Steers  fed  under  sheds  open  to  the  south,  with  yards  into 
which  they  can  freely  go,  have  given  better  results  in  growth 
and  fattening  than  those  kept  in  stalls  in  warm  barns. 
President  Waters,  while  at  the  Missouri  station,  found 
that  steers  fed  in  open  sheds  made  an  average  daily  gain  of 
1.9  pound,  while  those  fed  in  the  barn  gained  1.7  pound. 


Fig.  165.     The  interior  of  a  model  sheep  barn  owned  by  Oakleigh  Thome,  of 
New  York.     Photograph  by  courtesy  of  the  owner. 

Those  fed  in  the  open  shed  required  less  feed  for  a  pound  of 
gain  than  did  the  barn-fed  cattle.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  more  farm  animals  have  access  to  open  air,  and  the  less 
they  are  confined  in  stables,  the  healthier  they  will  be,  and 
the  better  use  they  will  make  of  their  feed.  This  especially 
applies  to  horses,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  that  are  above 
weaning  age. 


CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  319 

Shelter  under  good  sheds,  open  to  the  south,  with  free- 
dom from  drafts,  are  the  essential  features  of  protection. 
Dairy  cows  are  more  sensitive  to  cold,  and  need  more  pro- 
tection; consequently,  the  comfortable,  well-lighted  and  venti- 
lated stable  is  all  right  for  these  animals.  Young  animals 
should  be  given  protection  not  only  from  severe  cold,  but 
also  from  excessive  heat. 

Ventilation  of  the  stable  is  in  these  days  receiving  much 
attention.  Many  barns  built  in  recent  years  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  are  constructed  so  as  to  have  fresh  air  come  in 
at  the  windows  or  the  ceiling,  with  the  bad  air  drawn  out 
f by  flues  in  the  wall,  open- 
ings being  near  the  floor. 
The  King  system,  advo- 
cated by  the  late  Professor 
F.  H.  King,  of  Wisconsin, 
has  been  extensively  used. 
The  important  idea  is 
to  keep  the  stable  air 

Fig.  166.     An  unsanitary,  badly  lighted  barn.  .       .  ..  .          _. 

Photograph  by  the  author.  as    fresh     as     pOSSlble.      If 

the   stable   is    too    close, 

carbonic  acid  gas,  breathed  out  by  the  animals,  accu- 
mulates. Ordinary  air  contains  from  .02  to  .06  per  cent  of 
this  gas.  If  more  than  this  prevails,  breathing  is  more  rapid, 
the  heart  beats  more  slowly,  and  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs  are  likely  to  develop.  Under  the  winter  conditions 
of  the  North,  a  stable  temperature  of  40  to  45  degrees  in 
freezing  weather  is  preferable  to  one  that  is  above  that. 

The  stalls  for  the  live  stock  naturally  vary  according 
to  the  size  and  kind  of  animal.  Dr.  Mayo  recommends  * 
stalls  for  horses  to  be  5J^  to  6  feet  wide,  and  9J^  feet  long; 


*The  Care  of  Animals,  1903,  pp.  18-19. 


320  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

and  for  cattle,  from  38  to  45  inches  wide  and  from  56  to  72 
inches  from  the  manger  to  the  manure  trench,  according  to 
size  of  animal.  Captain  Hayes  advocates  stalls  for  horses 
6  feet  wide,  10  feet  long  and  10  high.  Box  stalls,  or  loose 
boxes  as  some  call  them,  should  be  about  10  by  12  feet  in 
size  for  horses  and  cattle;  for  the  larger  horses  12  by  12  feet 
is  better.  For  hogs  and  sheep,  stalls  are  not  made  for  indi- 
vidual animals,  but  instead  pens  are  built  to  hold  several 
head.  The  size  of  pens  is  a  matter  of  choice.  For  hogs, 
6  by  8  feet  is  about  as  small  as  they  should  be  made.  It  is 
better  to  have  pens  too  large  rather  than  too  small.  The 
most  popular  flooring  now  in  use  is  concrete,  with  a  rough 
surface.  Plenty  of  bedding  will  keep  such  a  floor  dry  and 
comfortable.  Two-inch  planks,  closely  laid  with  a  slight 
fall  toward  the  gutter,  make  excellent  floors. 

Exercise  for  the  breeding  stock  is  very  essential.  This 
promotes  vigor  and  a  good  appetite.  In  fact,  exercise  is 
essential  for  the  best  health  of  any  animal.  The  driver  of  a 
trotter  looks  after  systematic,  daily  exercise,  to  keep  his 
horse  in  the  right  condition.  So  does  the  caretaker  of  a 
heavy  draft  stallion  see  that  his  charge  is  exercised  daily 
with  a  walk  of  several  miles.  Professor  Henry,  discussing 
exercise,  says:*  "The  highly-fed  colt  should  be  out  of 
doors  from  8  to  10  hours  a  day,  and  should  move  several 
miles  each  day,  either  in  the  field,  or  on  the  track,  or  both. 
A  mature  horse  should  be  in  the  open  air  not  less  than  4  or 
5  hours  a  day,  and  should  travel  from  10  to  15  miles  daily 
to  maintain  health."  Captain  Hayes  recommends  for  a 
sound  horse  three  hours  of  exercise  daily,  or  what  would  be 
better,  four,  divided  into  two  and  one-half  hours  in  the  morn- 
ing a,nd  one  and  one-half  in  the  afternoon.  Bulls  are  ofter. 


*Feeda  and  Feeding,  1910,  p.  298. 


CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  321 

turned  into  small  lots  or  yards,where  they  usually  keep  more 
or  less  in  action,  thus  getting  the  necessary  exercise.  Where 
animals  are  turned  into  fields  or  paddocks,  as  is  usually  the 
case  where  land  is  abundant,  sufficient  exercise  is  secured. 
One  rule  should  always  be  applied  in  feeding  work  horses, 
and  that  is,  if  the  amount  of  work  or  exercise  is  reduced, 
there  should  be  some  reduction  in  the  amount  of  feed  given. 


Fig.  167.     A  bull  yard  or  paddock  for  exercise.      Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  amount  of  food  required  by  an  animal  naturally 
depends  upon  circumstances,  such  as  age,  size,  kind,  season 
of  year,  work,  etc.  As  regards  feeding  hay,  the  common  cus- 
tom is  to  give  an  animal  as  much  as  it  will  eat.  Grain  is  fed 
in  widely  different  amounts.  A  hard-working  horse  on  the 
farm  will  easily  eat  from  12  to  20  pounds  of  grain  a  day, 
depending  on  his  size  and  the  work  done.  About  2  pounds 
of  hay  and  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  is  regarded 
as  a  fair  amount  of  feed  for  the  hard-worked  horse.  From 
8  to  10  quarts  of  oats  a  day  for  the  carriage  horse  are  recom- 
mended. Professor  Henry  gives  the  following  amounts  of 


322  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBAND RY 

grain  for  colts,  as  measured  in  oats,  covering  three  periods  of 
development.  * 

Up  to  1  year  of  age,  from  2  to  3  Ibs. 
From  1  to  2  years  of  age,  4  to  5  Ibs. 
From  2  to  3  years  of  age,  7  to  8  Ibs. 

Cattle  are  fed  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions,  from 
those  that  receive  no  grain,  to  those  on  heavy  feed.  Beef 
cattle  often  receive  a  pound  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of 
live  weight,  while  undergoing  fattening,  though  much  more 
than  this  is  fed  when  finishing  them  off.  A  common  grain 
ration  for  dairy  cows  is  1  pound  for  every  3  pounds  of 
milk  produced.  Sheep  are  not  usually  fed  grain  heavily, 
especially  Merinos  and  breeding  stock.  Fattening  sheep 
are  given  from  J4  pound  to  2  pounds  of  grain  per  day,  with 
1  pound  as  a  fairly  good  feed  for  medium-sized  sheep. 
Growing  pigs  should  be  fed  what  they  will  eat  up  clean,  yet 
not  enough  to  be  fattening.  During  fattening,  one  may 
figure  on  about  5  pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain  in 
live  weight.  A  feed  of  7  pounds  per  day  for  a  200-pound 
hog  is  a  very  good-sized  ration.  Pasture  of  clover  or  alfalfa, 
or  even  blue  grass,  is  very  desirable  for  young  pigs  and 
breeding  stock,  and  where  available  for  feed  much  is 
saved  on  the  grain  bill. 

Animals  of  the  same  age  and  kind  should  be  kept  together 
under  conditions  suitable  for  their  best  development.  It  is 
customary  among  the  better  class  of  stockmen  to  keep  in 
groups  by  themselves,  the  nursing  calves,  the  yearling 
and  'two-year-old  heifers,  the  dry  cows,  and  the  producing 
cows.  Bull  calves,  after  two  or  three  months  old,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest.  Foals  must  be  handled  as  indi- 
viduals, and  are  valuable  enough  for  separate  stalls  when  no1 
in  the  open  lot  or  pasture.  Fattening  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1910,  page  291. 


CARE  OF  FARM  ANIMAL8  323 

should  be  sorted  out  and  each  kind  fed  in  its  own  group. 
Animals  thus  separated,  according  to  their  several  needs, 
will  get  the  best  individual  care,  will  be  fed  most  nearly 
right,  and  will  develop  more  satisfactorily  than  would  be 
the  case  otherwise. 

The  care  of  the  feet  of  animals  is  often  neglected.  One 
of  the  most  common  defects  is  seen  in  too  great  a  length  of 
hoof.  When  the  hoof  grows  too  long,  the  toe  becomes  ele- 
vated and  the  heel  depressed,  giving  a  bad  position.  This 
does  not  occur  so  often  with  horses,  as  the  blacksmith  looks 
after  the  foot  of  this  animal,  but  the  feet  of  stabled  cattle 
that  are  not  exercised,  frequently  become  very  long.  So 
also  do  the  hoofs  of  sheep  that  are  not  running  on  fields  with 
plenty  of  gravel  or  grit.  The  hoofs  of  cattle  may  be  trimmed 
back  with  the  aid  of  a  good  chisel  and  a  farrier's  rasp  and 
knife.  The  thin  hoofs  of  the  sheep  may  be  easily  trimmed 
with  a  sharp  pocket  knife.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
cut  into  the  tender  part,  or  "quick."  The  floor  of  the  hoof 
should  be  level  and  the  foot  carried  in  a  natural  position. 
The  feet  of  colts  and  young  animals  should  be  watched  and 
trimmed  as  seems  necessary. 

SUPPOSING  YOURSELF  IN  CHARGE  OF  SOME  LIVE  STOCK 

1.  Why  should  your  personal  attention  be  necessary? 

2.  How  frequently  would  you  feed  and  water? 

3.  What  arguments  would  you  have  in  behalf  of  grooming? 

4.  What  would  be  necessary  to  secure  a  sanitary  barn? 

5.  Under  what  conditions  would  you  furnish  shelter,  and  why? 

6.  Describe  the  ideal  condition  of  ventilation. 

7.  What  size  of  stalls  would  you  provide? 

8.  How  much  feed  would  the  horses  and  cattle  require  per  head 
ciaCy? 

9.  In  what  way  would  you  group  your  animals  and  why? 
10.  Describe  the  development  and  care  of  the  feet. 


324  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

MAKE  THE  FOLLOWING  NEIGHBORHOOD  OBSERVATIONS 

11.  A  comparison  of  the  best  and  poorest  cared-for  herds. 

12.  Records  of  hours  of  feeding  of  different  kinds  of  stock  by  ten 
stockmen  of  your  acquaintance. 

13.  If  possible,  visit  and  describe  a  sanitary  stable. 

14.  Compare  methods  of  exercising  horses  as  seen  about  your 
home. 

15.  If  living  on  the  farm,  measure,  or  better,  weigh,  the  amount 
of  grain  eaten  daily  per  head  by  some  of  the  animals  and  compare  with 
their  live  weight. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

A  classification  of  domestic  poultry  includes  a  number  of 
different  kinds,  each  consisting  of  a  group  with  its  types  and 
breeds.  The  following  is  a  classification  commonly  used. 

1.  Fowls  and  chickens.  5.  Pheasants. 

2.  Turkeys.  6.  Ducks. 

3.  Guineas.  7.  Geese. 

4.  Peafowls.  8.  Swans. 

The  types  of  domestic  fowls  (using  the  word  fowls  as 
referring  to  chickens)  are  six  in  number,*  as  follows: 
1.  Game.  2.  Egg.  3.  Meat. 

4.  General  purpose.    5.  Deformed.         6.  Bantam. 

For  some  time  poultry  students  have  discussed  these 
types,  but  more  especially  three,  which  from  a  practical  point 
of  view  are  the  only  ones  of  interest  to  the  farmer.  These 
three  are  the  laying,  the  meat,  and  the  general-purpose  fowls. 
Good  examples  of  each  of  these  types  are  common  all  over 
the  country.  The  other  three  types  are  rarely  raised  on 
the  farm,  being  the  product  of  the  fancier,  who  oftentimes 
has  his  poultry  outfit  on  a  town  lot.  The  breeds  are  also 
sometimes  divided  into  two  classes,  sitters  and  non-sitters, 
according  as  to  whether  or  not  the  hens  have  the  desire  to 
sit  on  and  hatch  a  nest  of  eggs. 

The  egg  type  of  fowl  is  somewhat  slender  of  body,  and 
has  been  compared  to  the  racing  horse,  the  dairy  cow,  and 
fine-wooled  sheep.  It  is  light  of  form,  has  a  sprightly, 

*Principles  and  Practices  of  Poultry  Culture.  John  H.  Robinson.  Ginn  & 
Co.,  1912,  p.  611,  figs.  570. 


326  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

active  carriage  of  head  and  neck,  is  somewhat  narrow  in 
body,  and  has  fairly  slender  legs  and  feet.  Fowls  of  this 
type  vary  somewhat  in  size  and  weight,  as  well  as  in  flesh- 
producing  capacity.  The  Leghorns  are  small  and  do  not 
produce  much  meat  on  the  body,  while  the  Minorcas  are 
larger  and  may  carry  a  good  amount  of  flesh  when  in  best 
condition.  The  fowls  of  this  type  are  of  European  ancestry 


Fig.  168.     The  egg  type  of  fowls.     Photograph  by  courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald. 

and  are  usually  known  as  the  Mediterranean  breeds.  Some 
breeds,  like  the  Leghorns,  are  small,  the  hens  weighing  around 
3  pounds,  while  Minorca  females  may  weigh  6J^  pounds. 

The  meat  type  of  fowl  is  said  to  be  comparable  to  the 
draft  horse,  beef  cattle,  mutton  sheep,  and  the  fat  hog.  It 
is  squarely  built,  compact,  thickly  fleshed,  wide  of  back  and 
breast,  and  heavy  of  limb.  Fowls  of  this  type  when  fat 
have  a  carcass  thickly  covered  with  meat,  and  are  especially 
valued  for  roasting.  The  hens,  as  a  rule,  are  of  sluggish 


POULTRY  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


327 


disposition  and  are  inferior  egg-producers.  The  meat-type 
fowls  sometimes  weigh  10 
to  12  pounds.  They  are 
of  Asiatic  origin,  and  are 
represented  by  the  Brah- 
ma, Cochin,  and  Lang- 
shan  breeds. 

The  general -purpose 
type  of  fowl,  as  might  be 
supposed,  is  valued  for 
both  egg  and  meat  pro- 
duction. This  type  is 
medium  in  size,  has  con- 
siderable fullness  of  breast 
and  width  of  back,  and 
fattens  to  advantage.  In  Fig>  169.  The  meat  type.  This  is  a  Cochin. 

egg   production   SOme  gen-     Phot°graPh  by  courtesy  of  the  Poultry  Herald. 

eral-purpose  breeds  have 
excellent  records.  Stand- 
ard weights  vary,  but  7 
pounds  for  the  hens  and 
9  for  the  cocks  are  satis- 
factory. Fowls  of  the 
general-purpose  type,  as  a 
rule,  belong  to  the  Amer- 
ican breeds,  of  which  the 
Plymouth  Rock,  Wyan- 
dotte,  and  Rhode  Island 
Red  are  the  most  common 
examples. 

The   breeds    and  va- 
rieties    Of     fOWlS     include        rig>    1/w<     ine  general-purpose  type.     A 
a     laro-o    niimhpr      nf     \nnr\o     Plymouth    Rock.     Photograph    by    courtesy 

a  large  numoer,  01    wiae   Of  the  Poultry  Herald. 


Fig.    170.     The  general-purpose  type.     A 


328 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


difference,  ranging  from  the  tiny  Bantam  to  the  large 
and  heavy  Brahma.  The  breed  characters  of  form,  as 
applied  to  head,  body,  and  legs,  are  rather  distinct  in  each 
case.  The  variety  characteristics  are  usually  shown  in 
color  of  feathers,  though  there  may  be  other  special  features, 
such  as  single  or  rose  comb.  The  Plymouth  Rock,  for 
example,  includes  six  varieties;  namely,  (1)  barred,  (2) 
white,  (3)  buff,  (4)  silver  penciled,  (5)  partridge,  and  (6) 

Columbian.  The  follow- 
ing very  brief  descriptions 
of  some  of  the  leading 
breeds  in  America,  include 
the  more  important  repre- 
sentatives of  each. 

The  Plymouth  Rock 
originated  in  America,  and 
is  of  medium  size.  The 
head  is  surmounted  by  a 
single,  upright  red  comb, 
and  the  ear  lobes  and 
wattles  are  also  red.  The 
neck  is  broad,  breast  full 
and  wide,  back  broad,  and 

Fig.  171.  A  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cock,  KonUr  r»r»mr»apt  Tlc»al-  lerre 
1st  prize  Minneapolis,  1904.  Photograph  DOCly  Compact.  ±5eak,  legS, 
by  courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald.  toeg  an(J  gkjn  snOuld  be 


yellow  in  color.  This  breed  is  hardy  and  matures  early,  fur- 
nishing excellent  broilers  when  eight  to  twelve  weeks  old.  The 
hens  are  moderate  layers,  the  eggs  being  of  a  brown  color. 
This  is  a  sitting  breed,  and  the  hens  make  excellent  mothers. 
The  mature  males  weigh  9^,  and  the  females  7J/£  pounds. 
Varieties  of  this  breed  differ  only  in  color  of  feathers.  The 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  has  been  very  popular  in  the  past, 
though  the  whites  are  now  meeting  with  much  favor. 


POULTRY  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


329 


The  Wyandotte  originated  in  America,  and  is  of  medium 
size,  with  a  form  very  similar  to  the  Plymouth  Rock.  These 
two  breeds  look  very  much  alike  when  fowls  of  the  same  color 
are  compared.  The  Wyandotte,  however,  should  have  an 
outline  of  form  somewhat  more  curved  in  its  lines  than  the 
Plymouth  Rock.  This  breed  has  a  rose  comb  instead 
of  a  single  form,  and 
red  ear  lobes  and  wat- 
tles. The  legs  are  yellow. 
Wyandottes  are  excellent 
layers,  and  their  eggs 
are  of  small  size,  brown 
in  color.  These  fowls 
are  valued  for  broiling 
and  roasting,  for  their 
flesh  is  of  fine  grain  and 
quality.  The  mature 
males  have  a  standard 
weight  of  8J/2  pounds  and 
the  females  6^  pounds. 
Wyandottes  are  extreme- 
ly popular. 

The  Rhode  Island  Red 
originated  in  Rhode  Is- 
land. The  American 
Standard  of  Perfection 

states  that  "their  chief  characteristics  are:  red  color, 
oblong  shape,  compact  form,  and  smooth  surface  plum- 
age." This  is  a  medium-sized  breed,  mature  males 
weighing  8J/2,  and  the  females  6J/£  pounds.  The  comb 
is  either  single  or  rose  in  form,  and  of  medium  size. 
The  shank  and  feet  should  be  yellow  or  reddish  horn  in 
color.  This  breed  has  become  quite  popular  on  account 


Fig.  172.      A  White  Wyandotte  cockerel, 
a    1st  prize  winner,   owned  by   Mrs.   E.  W. 
Brooker.     Photograph      by     courtesy      of 
Poultry  Success. 


330 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


of  merit  as  a  table  fowl,  and  for  excellence  in  egg  pro- 
duction. 

The  Orpington  was  first  developed  in  the  town  of  Orping- 
ton, England,  from  which  it  receives  its  name.  There  is  no 
great  difference  between  this  and  the  general-purpose  Ameri- 
can breeds,  except  that  the  Orpington  is  somewhat  heavier, 
and  has  gray  or  whitish  skin  and  black  or  flesh-colored  legs. 
The  corrib  may  be  of  the  single  or  rose  form.  The  ear  lobes 
are  red.  There  are  three  varieties,  white,  black,  and  buff. 

The  mature  males  weigh 
10  and  the  females  8 
pounds.  The  Orpington  in 
recent  years  has  become 
very  popular,  ranking  high 
for  table  use  and  for  egg 
production. 

The  Light  Brahma  is 
of  Asiatic  origin,  and  has 
been  known  in  America 
for  many  years.  It  is 
strictly  of  the  meafc  type, 
and  is  the  largest  breed  of 
fowls,  the  mature  males 
weighing  12  pounds  and 

the  females  9J/2  pounds.  The  head  is  of  medium  size, 
with  a  small  pea  comb,  medium  sized,  red  wattles,  and 
large  red  ear  lobes.  The  breast  is  very  broad  and  full,, 
the  back  wide,  the  legs,  toes,  and  skin  yellow,  and 
the  shanks  feathered.  The  neck,  tail,  and  large  wing 
feathers  are  black,  and  white  striped  with  black,  the 
other  feathers  being  white.  This  breed  is  valued  for  roast- 
ing, but  does  not  rate  high  in  egg  production.  There  is 
another  variety  called  the  Dark  Brahma,  but  neither  is 


Fig.  173.      A  White    Orpington    hen. 
courtesy  of  the  Poultry  Herald. 


By 


POULTRY  TYPE 8  AND  BREEDS 


331 


longer  popular,  and  but  few  flocks  are  now  kept,  although 
they  once  were  common. 

The  Cochin  is  also  an  Asiatic  breed,  large  in  size,  like 
the  Brahma,  a  standard  weight  for  males  being  11  pounds 
and  for  females  9J^  pounds.  This  is  a  deep-bodied,  massive 
fowl,  having  a  loose  plumage  with  much  downy  fiber  under- 
neath, which  gives  the  entire 
body  a  fluffy  appearance.  The 
legs  are  heavily  feathered.  These 
fowls  are  valued  for  roasters 
rather  than  for  egg  production. 
There  are  four  varieties  of  Coch- 
ins, buff,  black,  white,  and  part- 
ridge. 

The  Langshan  is  a  single- 
combed  Asiatic  breed,  somewhat 
smaller  and  more  active  than 
the  Brahma  or  Cochin,  and 
much  more  popular,  both  for 
meat  and  for  egg  production. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the 
black  and  the  white.  The  males 
weigh  9J/£  pounds  and  the  fe- 
males 7^2  pounds,  at  maturity, 
of  breast,  and  the  form  is  compact.  The  legs  of  the  black 
variety  are  bluish  colored,  and  slightly  feathered.  The 
comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  bright  red  in  color. 

The  Leghorn  is  a  breed  of  European  origin,  getting  its 
name  from  Leghorn,  Italy.  This  is  distinctly  an  egg-laying 
breed.  The  features  of  importance  are,  large,  single,  or  rose 
comb,  the  single  comb  on  the  hens  drooping  to  one  side.  The 
head  is  small,  the  eye  of  good  size,  ear  lobes  white,  comb 
and  wattles  red,  and  beak,  legs,  and  skin  yellow.  The  breast 


Fig.  174.  Light  Brahma  hen, 
Lady  V,  first  at  Chicago,  1911. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  the 
Poultry  Herald. 


There  is  much  fullness 


332  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

is  prominent,  though  not  very  wide;  the  back  of  medium 
width  and  length,  the  feathers  snugly  laid  to  the  body,  and 


Fig.  175.  Three  hens  owned  by  the  Cyphers  Incubator  Co.  The  White 
Leghorn  laid  251  eggs,  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  236,  and  the  White  Wyan- 
dotte  237,  each  within  a  year.  By  courtesy  The  Cyphers  Incubator  Company. 

the  tail  carried  erect.  The  Leghorn  is  very  hardy  and  one 
of  the  most  active  breeds  of  fowl,  rather  small  of  size,  and 
famous  for  egg  production.  The  females  are  non-sitters. 

There  is  no  standard  of 
weight  at  maturity,  but 
males  weigh  about  4  and 
females  3  pounds.  There 
are  several  varieties  of 
Leghorns,  of  which  the 
white,  brown,  and 
buff  are  most  common. 
This  is  one  of  the  most 
common  breeds  kept  on 
the  American  farm. 

The  Minorca  is  an  egg- 
laying,  non-sitting  breed, 
originating  on  the  island 
of  Minorca,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  The  fol- 

Fig.  176.     A     White     Leghorn     cockerel.    I—^^Q.  :G  nimtar| 
Drawing  by  courtesy  of  Poultry  Success.  lOWing  IS  qUOlCd 


POULTRY  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


333 


American  Standard  of  Perfection:  "They  are  distinguished 
by  long  bodies,  very  large  combs,  long  and  full  wattles, 
large  white  ear  lobes,  dark-colored  legs,  and  pinkish-white 
or  flesh-colored  skin.  The  Minorca  head  is  carried  rather 
high;  the  back  is  long  and  sloping;  the  tail  is  spread  some 
degrees  from  the  horizontal.  Their  legs  are  firm,  muscular, 
and  set  squarely  under  the  long,  powerful-looking  bodies." 
There  are  both  single  and  rose 
comb  strains  of  this  breed.  As 
egg  producers  the  Minorcas  rank 
very  high,  the  egg  being  very  large 
and  white. 

There  are  a  number  of  other 
breeds  of  fowls,  but  these  are 
usually  kept  only  in  a  small  way 
by  poultry  fanciers,  and  do  not 
require  attention  here. 

The  bantam  may  be  a  dwarf 
of  some  of  the  larger  breeds  or  a 


177.     A  Minorca  cockerel, 
courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald. 


distinct  breed.    Bantams  are  kept  r,  Fig 

F       rJy  cc 

for  ornamental  purposes,  and 
have  no  practical  value.  The  weights  naturally  vary 
somewhat,  but  26  ounces  for  mature  males,  and  22  ounces 
for  the  females  are  standards.  The  Cochin  and  Brahma 
bantams  weigh  slightly  more,  30  ounces  for  the  male  and  26 
for  the  female.  The  bantams  make  very  interesting  pets 
for  children. 

THE  TURKEY 

The  turkey  is  a  native  of  America  and  was  unknown 
in  Europe  previous  to  1624.  The  present  domesticated 
turkey  originated  from  the  wild  stock  which  once  was 
found  in  large  numbers  in  this  country,  and  is  yet  found  to 
a  small  extent  in  certain  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 


334 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Southern  states.  We  have  really  but  one  breed  of  turkey, 
all  variations  in  color  and  size  being  simply  differences  in 
varieties.  According  to  the  Standard  of  Perfection  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  the  frame  should  be  large, 
the  body  deep,  "with  a  broad,  round,  full  breast  that  varies 
in  prominence  according  to  the  variety."  The  head  should 
be  of  good  size,  and  the  eyes  bright  and  alert.  The  leg  and 

shank  bones  should  be 
large,  straight,  and  well 
set.  The  carriage  should 
be  proud  and  erect. 

The  Bronze  turkey 
is  very  large,  and  the 
feathers  are  bronze  or 
brown  black,  with  shad- 
ings  of  color.  The  stand- 
ard weight  for  an  adult 
male  is  36  pounds,  and 
for  the  hen,  20  pounds. 
This  is  the  most  common 
variety  raised. 

The  Narragansett 
turkey  is  of  a  metallic 
black  color,  with  shad- 
ings  to  steel  gray  or  approaching  white.  The  White  Hol- 
land, as  its  name  indicates,  has  a  white  plumage.  There 
are.  also  black,  buff,  and  slate  varieties,  each  having  a 
standard  weight  of  27  pounds  for  the  mature  male  and  12 
pounds  for  the  hen. 

THE  DUCK 

The  Mallard  or  common  wild  duck  is  regarded  as  the 
parent  stock,  or  ancestor,  of  all  domestic  ducks.   The  duck 


Fig.  178.     A   male  turkey.     Photograph  by 
courtesy  of  the  Poultry  Herald. 


POULTRY  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


335 


has  a  broad  flat  bill,  small  eye,  good-sized  head,  long  neck, 
full  breast,  long  body,  short  tail,  and  short  web-footed  legs. 
The  body  has  a  dense  covering  of  downy  feathers,  over  which 
lies  the  feathery  plumage.  The  thickness  of  plumage,  which 
is  slightly  oiled  by  natural  secretion,  prevents  water  from 
penetrating  among  the  feathers. 

Three  types  of  ducks  are  recognized,  meat,  egg-laying, 
and    ornamental.     Those 
which    best    supply    the 
needs  of  the  table  for  meat 
are  most  in  demand. 

The  Pekin  duck  was 
brought  to  England  from 
Pekin,  China,  in  1874.  It 
is  white  in  color  and  of 
large  size,  weighing  7  to  9 
pounds,  and  is  the  most 
popular  duck  for  table  use. 
The  bill  is  orange-yellow 
in  color,  while  the  shanks 
and  toes  are  reddish  or- 
ange. 

The  Aylesbury  duck  is 
white  and  much  resem- 
bles the  Pekin.  The  bill 

is  flesh-colored,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  pale  orange. 
These  ducks  are  more  popular  in  England,  where  they 
have  been  bred  many  years,  than  they  are  in  America. 

The  Rouen  duck  is  a  breed  that  takes  its  name  from  a 
city  in  northern  France,  where  it  has  long  been  bred.  It  is 
grayish  in  color,  with  dark  shadings  or  black  on  head,  neck, 
wings,  and  back.  The  bill  is  of  greenish-yellow  color,  and 
the  legs  and  feet  orange  with  a  green  or  brown  shade. 


Fig.  179.     A  pair  of  Pekin  ducks.     Repro- 
duced from  the  "Poultry  Manual." 


336 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The 
York. 


Cayuga  duck  originated  in  Cayuga  County,  New 
It  is  greenish-black  in  color,  except  some  of  the  large 
wing  feathers,  which  are  brown. 
The  bill  is  black,  and  the 
legs  preferably  black,  though 
slate  color  occurs. 

The  Muscovy  duck  is    a 
native  of  South  America.     In 
size   it  is   very   large,    adult 
drakes   weighing    10    pounds 
and  females  7  pounds.     The 
body  is  long  and  broad,  and  is 
carried    nearly    horizontally. 
The  head  is  rather  long,  and 
large  with  the  male,  and  has 
large  crest-like  feathers,  which 
the  duck  often  raises   when 
excited.     The  head  is  partly 
bare  of  feathers,  and  the  sides 
and  top  above  the  bill  have 
rough      wart-like      coverings 
known  as  caruncles,  which  are 
red  of  color  and  rather  con- 
spicuous.    The  bill  is  pink  or 
flesh-colored.     Colored    mus- 
covys  have  yellow  to  dark  lead- 
colored  legs,    while  those  of 
the  white  variety  are  yellow. 
The  plumage  varies  in  color, 
but  white  or  black-and-white 

are    the    favorite     varieties, 
by  "counTsy  Duckg  of  thig  breed  fly  much 


POULTRY  TYPES  AND  BREEDS 


337 


more  than  do  others,  and  sometimes  perch  on  elevated  places. 
The  Indian  Runner  duck  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  India.  It  is  rather  small,  a  standard  weight  being  about 
4  pounds  at  maturity.  The  body,  which  is  long  and  narrow, 
is  carried  somewhat  erect,  after  the  style  of  the  wild  penguin. 
The  popular  color  is  fawn  or  gray  and  white.  The  claim  is 
made  that  the  young  ducks  at  6  weeks  of  age  dress  into 


Fig.  181. 


Indian   Runner  ducks,   called  the   Leghorn  of  the    duck  family. 
Reproduced  from  the  "Poultry  Manual." 


broilers  weighing  2%  to  3  pounds.  This  duck,  however, 
is  valued  chiefly  for  egg  production,  a  female  occasionally 
laying  as  many  as  200  eggs  in  a  year. 

THE  GOOSE 

The  domesticated  breeds  of  geese  have  been  developed 
from  the  wild  breeds.  The  common  wild  goose  of  America 
is  often  domesticated  and  kept  in  confinement.  There  are 
several  breeds  of  importance. 


338 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  Embden  goose  is  of 

European  origin.  It  is  of 
medium  size,  adult  gan- 
ders weighing  about  20 
pounds.  The  bill  and 
legs  are  orange  in  color, 
and  the  plumage  is  white. 
This  is  a  very  popular 
breed. 

The    Toulouse    goose 

gets  its  name  from  a  city 
of  that  name  in  France. 
It  is  of  large  size,  adults 
weighing  about  25  pounds. 
The  bill  is  pale  orange 

Fig.  182.   An  Embden^  goose.  ^Photograph  and  the  legs  a  deep  shade 

of  that  color.  The  plum- 
age is  gray,  with  dark 
shadings  about  the  neck, 
back,  wings,  and  breast. 

Most  of  our  domestic 
flocks  consist  of  these  two 
breeds. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
REFLECTION 

1.  What   makes   the    six 
types  of  domestic  fowls? 

2.  Describe  the  egg-laying 
type  of  hen. 

3.  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  breed  and  a  variety? 

4.  Compare  the  Plymouth 
Rock  and  the  Wyandotte. 


by  courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald. 


Fig.  183.     Toulouse  geese.    By  courtesy  the 
Poultry  Herald. 


POULTRY  TYPE 8  AND  BREEDS  339 

5.  Compare  the  Light  Brahma  and  the  Leghorn. 

6.  Name  the  place  of  origin  of  each  of  five  breeds  of  fowls. 

7.  Discuss  the  origin  of  the  turkey. 

8.  What  are  common  features  of  different  breeds  of  ducks? 

9.  Compare  the  Pekin  and  Rouen  ducks. 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  the  Mus- 
covy duck? 

DO  YOU  THINK  YOU  COULD 

11.  Give  the  names  of  five  men  keeping  pure-bred  poultry  in  your 
neighborhood,  and  the  breeds  they  keep? 

12.  Bring  a  small  collection  of  eggs  of  different  breeds  to  school? 

13.  Interest  local  poultrymen  to  arrange  a  small  poultry  show  for 
the  benefit  of  the  school? 

14.  Weigh  some  specimens  of  live  poultry  of  different  breeds  and 
report  on  the  age  and  weight  of  each? 

15.  Bring  to  school  specimens  of  feathers   showing  breed  colors? 


CHAPTER  XXV 
JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS 

The  poultry  judge  who  understands  his  work  must  be 
familiar  with  many  details.  There  is  in  this  country  an 
organization  known  as  the  American  Poultry  Association. 
This  devotes  much  attention  to  the  establishment  of  stand- 
ards of  perfection  for  the  various  breeds  and  varieties  of 
fowls,  and  provides  rules  and  methods  for  judging  fowls. 
A  book  published  by  the  association,  known  as  the  "  Standard 
of  Perfection,"  is  the  American  authority  for  judges  and  stu- 
dents to  follow.  No  poultry  show  could  be  properly  con- 
ducted without  the  judge  being  guided  by  this  standard. 
No  breed  of  fowls  can  be  considered  established  until  offi- 
cially recognized  and  described  by  the  American  Poultry 
Association. 

The  parts  of  the  fowl  passed  on  by  the  judge  have  certain 
outlines,  colors,  and  other  markings  as  applied  to  each 
breed.  The  feathers  differ  in  size  and  form  in  a  striking  way, 
according  to  their  location  on  the  body.  The  illustration 
of  a  male  bird  on  page  341  shows,  through  a  numbering 
system,  the  location  of  the  parts  and  feathers. 

The  head  of  the  fowl  is  one  of  the  striking  breed  features. 
It  is  topped  with  a  comb,  which  is  larger  on  the  cocks  than 
on  the  hens.  A  very  common  form  is  single,  upright  or 
lopped,  the  top  being  serrated,  or  separated  into  points  sug- 
gesting the  teeth  of  a  saw.  Leghorn  and  Plymouth  Rock 
varieties  have  this  form.  The  rose  comb  is  wide  and  low, 
consisting  of  many  knobs  crowded  together,  the  rear  part 
tapering  more  or  less  to  a  smooth  point.  This  comb  occurs 


JV DOING  POULTRY  AND  EGGS 


341 


Fig.  184.    The  exterior  of  the  fowl.     Drawing  by  courtesy  of 

Success. 


1.  Comb. 

2.  Face. 

3.  Wattles. 

4.  Ear    lobe. 

5.  Hackle  feathers. 

6.  Breast. 

7.  Back. 

8.  Saddle. 

9.  Saddle  feathers. 


10.  Sickle  feathers. 

11.  Lesser  sickle  feathers. 

12.  Tail  coverts. 

13.  Main  tail  feathers. 

14.  Wing  bone  feathers. 

15.  Wing  coverts,  forming 
wing  bar. 

16.  Secondary  feathers, 
wing  bay. 


17.  Primaries  or  flight 
feathers. 

18.  Flight  coverts. 

19.  Fluff. 

20.  Body  feathers. 

21.  Thigh. 

22.  Knee  joint. 

23.  Shank. 

24.  Spur. 

25.  Toe  or  claw. 


342  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

on  Wyandottes,  Minorcas,  and  other  varieties.  The  pea 
comb  is  very  small,  and  resembles  three  single  combs  dwarfed 
in  size  and  crowded  side  by  side,  with  the  central  one  some- 
what larger  than  the  others.  There  are  also  V-shaped  and 
strawberry  combs,  but  these  are  not  common.  The  ear 
lobes  are  usually  small,  and  vary  in  color  from  red  to  white 
or  bluish,  according  to  breed.  The  wattles  are  usually  red, 
and  on  the  cock  often  hang  below  the  bill  in  a  conspicuous 
manner.  The  bill  does  not  show  the  striking  differences 


Fig.  185.  The  serrated,  single 
comb  of  the  Leghorn.  Repro- 
duced from  the  "Poultry  Manual."  Fig.  186.  A  rose  comb. 

seen  in  the  comb  and  wattles.  Some  breeds,  like  the  Houdan 
and  Polish,  have  crests,  or  clusters  of  feathers,  which  some- 
times largely  hide  the  head  proper  from  view  and  also  often 
affect  the  sight. 

The  feathers  of  the  fowl  differ  in  a  remarkable  way  in 
size,  form,  and  color.  Even  with  varieties  of  one  color,  as 
for  example  white,  the  shades  of  this  hue  are  made  a  subject 
of  discussion  by  poultry  experts.  This  also  applies  to  other 
solid  colors.  In  the  case  of  fowls  having  more  than  one  color- 
marking  to  the  feather,  there  are  barred  feathers,  as  with  the 
Plymouth  Rock;  penciled  feathers,  as  with  the  Silver  Pen- 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  EGGS 


343 


ciled  Wyandotte;  laced 
feathers,  as  with  the 
Golden  Wyandotte;  and 
still  other  markings,  as 
striped,  spangled,  edged, 
etc.  The  color-markings 
of  some  birds  are  very 
beautiful.  The  correct 

r.^1™         nA      f^r.          ~t    4-1* ~         Fig.  189.     Striped    feathers   of    Partridge 
COlor      and      form     Ol     the    Cochin.      Reproduced    from    the    "Poultry 

feather  are  of  most  inter-   ManuaL" 

est  to  the  fancier;  yet  the  practi- 
cal poultryman  little  interested  in 
this  feature  has  been  able  to  se- 
cure his  favorite  breed  through 
patient  breeding,  development, 
and  improvement  by  the  so-called 
fancier. 


Fig.  188.  Laced  feathers  from 
Laced  Wyandotte.  Reproduced 
from  the  "Poultry  Manual." 

Methods  of  judging. 
There  are  two  methods 
of  judging  fowls,  by 
score  card  and  by  com- 
parison. The  score- 
card  method  has  been 
generally  used  at  poul- 
try shows  for  many  years.  Its  use,  however,  is  not  so 
common  now  as  formerly.  Poultry  judges  using  the 
score  card  put  down  the  number  of  points  or  fraction 


Fi 


187.     Barred   Plymouth   Rock   feather, 
uced  from  the  "Poultry  Manual." 


344 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


of  a  point  cut,  and  adding  these,  deduct  from  100, 
which  gives  the  total  score.  In  cutting  for  defects, 
from  f/2  to  3  points  are  recommended  for  certain  deficiencies, 
and  these  are  specified  in  the  standard  for  the  benefit  of 
official  judges.  Judging  by  comparison  is  becoming  common, 
and  is  more  satisfactory  than  by  score  card,  for  the  reasons 
already  given  in  Chapter  VII. 

The  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry  Associ- 
ation is  here  given: 

(Name  of  association  here) 


(Date,  month,  days  and  year  show  is  held) 
OFFICIAL  SCORE  CARD  OF  THE  AMERICAN  POULTRY  ASSOCIATION 
EXHIBITOR  ............................................. 

VARIETY  ...............................  SEX  ............ 

ENTRY  No..  .  .BAND  No.  .          .  .WEIGHT.  . 


Shape 

Color. 

Remarks. 

Symmetry  

Weight  or  size  

Condition  

Comb  

Head 

Beak 

Eyes  . 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes    . 

Neck  

Wings  

Back  

Tail  

Breast  

Body  and  fluff 

Legs  and  toes  . 

f  Crest  and  beard 

*Shortness  of  feather  

Total  cuts .  .Score. 


.  JUDGE 

. SECRETARY 


fApplies  to  crested  breeds.     *Applies  to  games  and  game  bantams. 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  EGGS  345 

This  score  card  is  intended  for  use  in  connection  with  the 
Standard  of  Perfection,  which  contains  a  detailed  description 
of  each  variety  of  fowl. 

Instructions  for  judges  of  poultry  include  various  points. 
Among  these,  weight  receives  considerable  attention,  and 
two  points  are  usually  deducted  for  each  pound  that  the  fowl 
falls  short  of  the  standard  weight.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  one  nearest  standard  weight  is  awarded  the  prize.  To 
receive  a  first  prize,  a  specimen  must  score  90  or  more -points, 
except  cocks  in  parti-colored  varieties,  which  are  allowed 
88  points  as  a  minimum.  When  young  and  old  birds  are  in 
competition,  other  things  being  equal,  the  older  ones  are  to 
be  awarded  the  prizes.  Ties  often  result  in  judging.  When 
this  occurs,  if  the  tie  cannot  be  broken  by  other  rules,  then 
the  specimen  receiving  the  smallest  total  sum  of  cuts  for 
shape  shall  be  awarded  the  prize. 

Disqualification  in  judging  poultry  is  allowed  for  various 
reasons.  The  occurrence  of  feathers  on  the  legs  of  what 
should  be  a  smooth-legged  breed;  or  of  smooth  legs  when 
feathers  should  occur;  improper  color  of  ear  lobes  and  legs; 
excessive  number  of  toes,  or  too  few  toes ;  absence  of  crest  in 
crested  varieties;  etc.,  are  examples  of  conditions  which 
justify  disqualification. 

Judging  poultry  products,  such  as  dressed  poultry  and 
eggs,  is  becoming  more  and  more  necessary.  The  score  card 
is  not  specially  recommended  for  this  purpose,  the  compara- 
tive method  being  best.  Referring  to  this  point,  one  author- 
ity says:*  "In  judging  dressed  poultry  and  eggs,  the  num- 
ber of  qualities  or  points  to  be  considered  is  small ;  slight  dif- 
ferences in  quality  do  not  make  great  differences  in  value,  as 
in  high-class  birds,  and  degrees  of  quality  are  more  readily 


*John  H.  Robinson:     Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture,  1911. 


346 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


appreciated.  While  score  cards  are  sometimes  used  for  judg- 
ing dressed  poultry  and  eggs,  the  number  of  sections  into 
which  a  card  may  appropriately  be  divided  is  so  small  that 
there  is  little  if  any  advantage  in  scoring,  and  if,  to  develop 
a  system  of  scoring,  many  sections  are  made,  the  process  of 
judging  is  complicated  when  it  should  remain  simple.  The 
points  to  be  considered  are  so  few,  and  the  values  so  apparent, 
that  judgment  of  all  is  practically  instantaneous.  *  *  * 
The  rational  method  of  judging  dressed  poultry  arid  eggs  is 
to  grade  them  according  to  market  quality  and  value." 

The  judging  of  eggs  by  score  card  has  been  attempted  to 
some  extent.  An  egg  show,  in  which  eggs  were  scored  by  the 
st.udents,  has  been  held  annually  at  Purdue  University. 
Two  classes  of  eggs  were  provided,  " fancy"  and  " commer- 
cial." The  following  score  card  and  explanation  of  its  use 
are  well  worth  consideration : 


COMMERCIAL  EGG  SCORE  CARD 

EXHIBITOR DATE 

ADDRESS COLOR 

ENTRY  No CLASS . .  . .  WEIGHT.  .  .  . Ozs. 


191- 


Features  considered 

Perfec- 
tion 

Cuts 

Remarks 

Size  

25 

Shape  

4 

Uniformity  of  color  

8 

Uniformity  of  size  and  shape 

5 

Shell  texture  

4 

Condition  of  shells  

4 

Quality  (by  testing) 
(a)  Size  air  cell  

25 

(b)  Opaqueness  

25 

Total  points  

100 

,  JUDGE 


. SECRETARY. 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  EGGS 


347 


EXPLANATION  OF  COMMERCIAL  EGG  SCORE  CARD 

Size:  Extras,  26  to  28  ounces.  Firsts,  24  to  26  ounces. 
One  point  cut  for  each  ounce  over  or  under  required  weight 
in  either  class. 

Shape:    }/%  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 

Uniformity  of  color:  If  white,  eggs  should  be  all  pure 
white  and  of  the  same  shade.  If  brown,  the  color  may  be 
any  shade,  but  the  dozen  should  be  uniformly  the  same  color ; 
%  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 

Uniformity  of  size  and  shape:  All  eggs  must  be  of 
same  size  and  shape.  J^  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 

Shell  texture:  Free  from  wrinkles,  spots,  cracks,  and 
rough  places;  J^  point  for  each  egg. 

Condition  of  shell:    Free  from  dirt  or  stain,  unwashed. 

Quality:  Test  with  candles,  (a)  Air  cell  very  small, 
about  size  of  a  dime,  indicating  freshness,  (b)  Egg  must 
appear  opaque,  the  yolk  free  from  dark  color,  white  thick, 
yolk  barely  visible.  Large  air  cell,  floating  yolks  or  air  sells 
are  defects.  Eggs  must  be  fresh  and  sweet. 

Disqualification:  Cracked,  broken,  spots,  musty  rots, 
and  germs  or  blood  rings  in  any  one  egg  will  disqualify  the 
dozen. 


Fig.  190.     An  egg  show.     Photograph  by  courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald. 


348  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

COULD  YOU  TELL 

1.  The  purpose  and  value  of  the  Standard  of  Perfection? 

2.  How  the  combs  of  fowls  differ  in  form? 

3.  In  what  way  feathers  differ  in  coloring? 

4.  The  method  of  making  cuts  in  scoring  poultry? 

5.  How  weight  and  size  are  graded  by  the  judge? 

6.  Two  conditions  that  might  cause  disqualifications? 

7.  Why  the  score  card  is  not  used  more  in  judging  poultry  products? 

8.  The  features  of  a  commercial  score  card? 

EASY  THINGS  TO  DO 

9.  Holding  Saturday  afternoon  poultry  judging  contests. 

10.  Collecting  an  exhibit  of  one  breed  for  comparison  at  school. 

11.  Getting  up  a  prize  egg  show,  and  judging  by  score  card. 

12.  Sorting  over  and  studying  a  case  of  eggs  loaned  by  the  egg- 
dealer  or  grocer. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 

The  egg  is  an  object  of  much  interest,  for  not  only  is  it 
the  source  of  the  chicken  itself,  but  it  is  also  a  most  important 
source  of  income  to  the  poultryman.  If  one  is  to  handle  the 
egg  intelligently,  he  must  know  something  of  its  composition, 
of  how  the  chick  is  developed  within  the  shell,  and  of  com- 
mercial differences  and  values. 

The  parts  of  the  egg  of  special  interest  are  five.  These 
are  the  following: 

a.  The  shell,  composed  mostly  of  lime,  and  hard  enough 
to  enclose  and  protect  the  softer  interior. 

b.  Two  tough  membranes  lying  next    within   the  shell. 
These  separate  at  the  large  end,  forming  a  small  air  sac, 
which  is  easily  seen  in  hard-boiled  eggs. 

c.  The  albumen,  or  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  white  of 
the  egg.    This  forms  about  57  per  cent  of  the  egg  and  con- 
sists of  much  nitrogenous  matter  of  a  liquid,  sticky,  trans- 
parent character.    Boiling  hardens  or  coagulates  the  white 
into  a  firm,  white  structure. 

d.  The  yolk,  comprising  about  33  per  cent  of  the  egg,  is 
a  round  yellow  sac,  surrounded  by  the  white.    This  is  used 
for  nourishing  the  young  chick  just  before  and  after  leaving 
the  shell.    The  yolk  is  suspended  midway  in  the  white  and 
kept  in  proper  position  by  two  albuminous  cords. 

e.  The  germ,  in  the  fresh-laid  egg  is  seen  as  a  white  speck 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  yolk.    The  germ  is  the  true  egg  and  source  of  the  chick 
in  incubation. 


350  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  fertile  egg  is  one  that  will  produce  a  chick  under 
proper  conditions  of  what  is  called  incubation.  The  infertile 
or  sterile  egg  cannot  be  hatched,  and  so  has  no  value  in  repro- 
duction, although  for  food  it  has  equal  value  with  the  fertile 
one.  The  fertility  of  the  egg  cannot  be  determined  except 
by  incubation.  After  the  egg  has  been  under  the  hen  for 
five  to  seven  days,  ordinarily  one  may  easily  tell  whether  it  is 
fertile  or  infertile.  If  the  latter,  it  will  appear  clear  and  show 
none  of  the  changes  described  in  the  following. 

The  testing  or  candling  of  eggs  is  a  simple  process  of 
looking  through  the  egg  with  the  aid  of  special  light.  One 
may  take  a  piece  of  common  cardboard,  one  side  of  which  is 
black,  in  which  is  cut  an  oval  hole  not  quite  as  large  as  an 
egg.  If  the  cardboard  is  held  before  a  lighted  lamp  in  a 
dark  room,  blackened  side  towards  one,  and  an  egg  is  held 
in  the  hole,  those  that  contain  chicks  will  appear  dark  and 
opaque  except  at  the  larger  end,  while  sterile  eggs  will  be 
clear  and  show  light.  In  the  trade,  where  all  eggs  are 
examined  before  a  light,  this  process  is  known  as  candling. 
Black  lamp  chimneys  with  holes  in  them  are  made  for  use  in 
a  small  way,  but  in  the  larger  commercial  trade,  eggs  are 
candled  over  sets  of  lights  arranged  for  this  purpose. 

The  incubation  of  the  egg  of  the  hen  occupies  a  period 
of  21  days.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important 
changes  that  take  place  during  incubation.  During  the 
first  twenty-four  hours  the  germ  enlarges  to  about  a  half  inch 
in  size,  within  which  the  first  stages  of  head  and  some  other 
parts  appear.  During  the  second  day  the  heart  begins  to 
beat  and  the  blood  to  flow.  By  the  end  of  the  third  day  the 
veins  and  arteries  are  considerably  developed,  and  the  young 
chick  turns  on  its  left  side.  On  the  fourth  day  the  wing 
folds,  and  the  folds  forming  the  legs  appear.  The  beak 
begins  to  form  on  the  eighth  day,  and  shows  its  horny  shape 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION  351 

on  the  twelfth.  The  entire  shell  except  the  air  cell  is  occu- 
pied by  the  chick  by  the  twelfth  day.  The  feathers  appeal- 
first  on  the  eighth  day,  and  by  the  thirteenth  cover  the  body 
to  the  length  of  one-fourth  inch.  At  this  time  the  nails  of 
the  feet  appear.  On  the  fourteenth  day  the  chick  changes 
its  position  and  extends  lengthwise,  the  beak  reaching  the 
inner  shell  membrane.  The  air  cell  has  been  gradually 
increasing  in  size,  and  by  this  time  is  much  larger.  From  now 
on,  the  chick  increases  in  development  to  the  twenty-first 
day.  The"  following  interesting  description  of  the  hatching 
process  is  given  by  Professor  Lewis:* 

"When  ready  to  come  out,  the  chick  raises  its  head  and 
pierces  the  inner  shell  membrane,  and  immediately  starts 
breathing  the  air  in  the  chamber,  which  causes  the  pulmonary 
circulation  to  become  active  and  the  embryonic  circulation 
to  cease.  The  head  is  next  raised  into  the  air  chamber,  and 
the  chick  deals  blows  upon  the  shell,  which  when  often 
repeated  in  the  same  place  result  in  fracturing  it.  This 
process  is  repeated  until  the  shell  is  broken  around  about 
one-third  of  the  way  from  the  large  end.  The  chick  then 
presses  its  head  against  the  large  end  and  its  feet  against  the 
small  end,  and  then  by  pushing  is  able  to  throw  off  the  shell 
lid  and  make  its  exit." 

The  temperature  of  the  egg  during  incubation  should  be 
about  103  degrees.  The  usual  temperature  of  the  body  of 
the  hen  is  106  degrees,  and  her  eggs  from  102  to  104  degrees. 
The  egg  must  be  kept  close  to  this  temperature,  and  serious 
variation  from  this  will  kill  the  chick  in  the  egg.  During 
the  first  week  a  temperature  of  102  is  best,  but  this  may 
increase  to  103  degrees  the  last  part  of  incubation.  After 
the  third  or  fourth  day  the  eggs  being  incubated  should  be 
turned  once  or  twice  daily. 

•Poultry  Laboratory  Guide,  1910,  p.  47. 


352 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


The  need  of  moisture  during  incubation  is  commonly 
recognized.  The  egg  contains  from  60  to  65  per  cent  water 
and  during  incubation  some  of  this  is  lost.  In  experiments 
it  has  been  shown  that  eggs  lose  from  11  to  17  per  cent  of 
their  original  weight  by  evaporation.  Professor  Atwood, 
of  the  West  Virginia  experiment  station,  has  estimated  that 
100  fertile  eggs  will  lose  about  8J4  ounces  of  moisture  during 
the  first  five  days,  about  12  ounces  during  the  following  seven 
days,  and  slightly  more  during  the  next  seven  days.  Thus 
it  can  be  seen  that  moisture  must  be  provided  to  some  extent 
during  incubation. 

The  .need  of  ventilation  during  incubation  is  also  well 
understood.  The  movement  of  air  about  the  eggs  must  be 
somewhat  free,  the  air  being  neither  too  dry  or  too  moist. 
The  hen  shifts  her  position  from  time  to  time,  and  so  brings 

fresh  air  in  contact  with  the  eggs 
and  her  body.  In  artificial  incu- 
bation, proper  ventilation  is  so 
provided  that  the  pure  air  and 
right  moisture  conditions  go  to- 
gether. 

The  incubator  is  a  box-like 
device  containing  a  space  in  which 
eggs  may  be  incubated  by  means 
of  artificial  heat.  The  hatching 
of  e^s  by  artificial  incubation 
ture'  °hi°  State  has  been  in  operation  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  especially  in  Egypt 
and  China.  There  are  various  designs  of  incubators  made, 
ranging  in  size  from  those  to  contain  but  a  few  eggs,  up  to 
those  with  a  capacity  for  thousands.  Incubators  in  use 
at  the  present  time  are  heated  by  hot  air  from  a  kerosene 
lamp,  or  by  a  hot  water  system.  The  hot  air  type  is  the  one 


u2ivegresi°tfyAgric 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION  353 

in  more  common  use.  The  eggs,  one  layer  deep,  are  placed 
in  moveable,  wire-bottomed  trays.  The  temperature  of  the 
incubator  is  regulated  by  the  automatic  action  of  an  instru- 
ment called  a  thermostat,  which  is  sensitive  to  heat  changes. 
This  instrument  is  set  so  as  to  reduce  or  increase  automatic- 
ally the  amount  of  incoming  pure  air.  A  thermometer 
within  may  be  read  through  the  glass  front.  Incubators 
should  stand  level,  and  a  popular  location  in  which  to  operate 
them  is  a  dry  cellar  that  holds  a  uniform  temperature. 


Fig.   192.      A   home-made   brooder   and   incubator.     Photograph  by   courtesy 
Ohio  State  University  College  of  Agriculture. 

A  brooder  is  a  device  used  in  connection  with  the  incu- 
bator, and  is  in  a  sense  an  artificial  mother.  The  general 
plan  of  the  brooder  is  that  of  a  warm  box  or  room,  heated  by 
a  lamp  or  hot-water  plant.  A  circular  plate  about  two  feet 
in  diameter  is  placed  about  ten  inches  above  the  floor.  A 
rim  extending  downward  about  four  inches  is  attached  to 
this,  below  which  is  fastened  a  heavy  cloth  curtain  extending 
to  the  floor.  Pieces  of  cloth  are  also  dropped  from  different 
parts  of  the  under  side  of  the  cover  to  the  floor.  Here  and 


354 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


there  the  cloth  is  slit  so  that  the  chicks  may  freely  pass 
through  and  find  a  warm  protection  among  the  strips  ot 
cloth,  comparable  to  being  under  the  mother's  wings.  This 
special  arrangement  within  the  brooder  is  called  a  hover. 


Fig.  193.     A  cheap  brooder  house,  with  brood. 
Poultry  Herald. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  the 


The  small  brooder  house  usually  has  one  hover,  but  large 
brooder  houses  have  series  of  them,  each  of  which  is  heated 
by  a  hot  water  pipe  system. 

Eggs  for  incubation  should  be  from  vigorous,  well-mated 
fowls,  and  not  from  what  might  be  called  mongrel  stock. 
These  eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  atmosphere  until 
placed  under  the  hen  or  in  the  incubator.  A  place  having 
a  temperature  of  from  50  to  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  con- 
sidered best.  The  eggs  should  be  carefully  handled,  not 
being  severely  shaken  or  cracked.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mark 
on  each  egg  the  date  laid,  and  no  eggs  over  21  days  old  should 
be  set.  In  making  up  settings,  it  is  desirable  to  use  those  of 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 


355 


uniform  size  and  condition.  Hatchings  will  be  likely  to  be 
more  uniform  if  the  eggs  are  of  much  the  same  age  and  con- 
dition of  keep  previous  to  setting. 

The  size  and  weight  of  eggs  vary  more  than  many  sup- 
pose. Professor  Lewis  gives*  some  interesting  figures  about 
the  size  and  weight  of  eggs  of  dif- 
ferent breeds  of  fowls.  The  eggs 
of  seven  different  breeds  showed 
an  average  large  circumference 
of  6.19  inches,  a  small  circumfer- 
ence of  5.27  inches,  and  an  aver- 
age weight  of  1  pound,  8.05  ounces. 
The  eggs  from  the  hens  were 
slightly  larger  and  weighed  a  trifle 
more  than  those  from  the  pullets. 
A  dozen  Plymouth  Rock  eggs 
weighed  1  pound,  11,2  ounces; 
the  Leghorns  ranking  second  at  1 
pound,  10.3  ounces.  In  a  bulletin 
published  by  the  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity,! it  was  shown  that  in 
sorting  over  a  case  of  eggs,  a  doz- 
en of  the  largest  ones  weighed 
30 Y%  ounces,  the  medium  sized  26J/2 
ounces,  and  the  small  ones  21% 
ounces.  On  this  basis  it  was  fig- 
ured that  a  case  of  30  dozens  of  large  eggs  would  weigh 
57  pounds,  3  ounces,  while  the  small  ones  would  weigh 
but  40  pounds,  12  ounces,  an  astonishing  difference.  The 
Leghorn  naturally  produces  small  eggs,  and  the  Minorca 
large  ones,  and  figures  in  the  bulletin  referred  to  give  a 


Fig.  194.  Notice  the  dif- 
ference in  size  of  these  eggs. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  Ohio 
State  University  College  of 
Agriculture. 


•Poultry  Laboratory  Guide,  1910.  p.  16. 
VThe  Marketing  of  Eggs,  April,  1911,  p.  16. 


366 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


weight  of  22  ounces  for  a  dozen  of  the  former,  and  27)4 
ounces  for  the  latter.    The  fact  is,  for  the  same  price,  a 

dozen  large  eggs  furnish  more 
actual  nutrition  than  a  dozen 
small  ones. 

The  color  of  the  egg  is  due  to 
a  pigment,  or  coloring  substance 
developed  in  the  shell  during  the 
process  of  formation  in  the  body 
of  the  hen.  The  color  is  either 
white  or  brown.  Leghorn  and 
Minorcas  produce  white  eggs,  and 
Brahmas  and  Plymouth  Rocks, 
brown  ones.  Some  buyers  prefer 
the  white  color,  and  others  the 
brown.  This  is  merely  a  matter 
of  fancy,  because  there  is  no  dif- 
ference in  the  food  value.  When 
fresh  laid,  the  egg  has  a  clear  shell 
of  a  beautiful  dull  glaze,  but  with  age  and  handling  it 
becomes  somewhat  glossy  or  polished  and  often  is  soiled. 

The  degree  of  freshness  of  the 
egg  has  much  to  do  with  its  value 
on  the  common  market.  Prime 
fresh  eggs,  such  as  producers  sup- 
ply to  private  consumers,  bring 
the  highest  price.  In  a  commer- 
cial way,  eggs  are  gathered  from 
farmers  by  hucksters,  or  are 
sold  to  country  grocers  by  the 
producers.  These  are  placed  in 
wooden  cases  holding  30  dozens,  and  are  shipped  to  the 
city  dealers,  where  they  are  graded,  and  then,  placed  on 


Fig.  195.  Clean  vs.  dirty 
eggs.  Photograph  by  cour- 
tesy Ohio  State  University 
College  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  196.  A  case  of  eggs. 
Photograph  by  courtesy  Ohio 
State  University  College  of 


Agriculture. 


EQGS  AND  INCUBATION 


357 


the    market.    Often   the   eggs   are   very  poor,    especially 

during  the  summer  season.    Eggs  from  stolen  nests,  dirty 

nests,  from  held  over-stock,  etc., 

find  their  way  into  the  same  case, 

and    form    a   motley    collection. 

The    careful    dealer    sorts    these 

over,  candles  them  and  tries   to 

grade  them  before  placing  them 

on  the  market. 

The  grades  of  eggs  on  the 
market  differ  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  in  some  places  more 
than  in  others.  Large  markets 
like  New  York  or  Boston  handle 
the  most  grades.  Professor  Phil- 
ips gives  the  following  as  an 
ideal  way  to  grade  eggs :  * 


Fig.  197.  Sorted  vs.  un- 
sorted  eggs.  Photograph  by 
courtesy  Ohio  State  Univ- 
ersity College  of  Agriculture. 


Extras.    Weigh  28-26  ozs.  naturally  and  absolutely  clean;  fresh 

and  sound. 

No.  1.    Weigh  26-24  ozs.,  sound,  fresh,  and  reasonably  clean. 
No.  2.    Shrunken  or  stale,  washed,  small,  stained  and  dirty. 
No.  3.    Checks — cracked,  but  not  leaking. 
No.  4.    Rots.    Incubator  and  decomposed  eggs. 

A  Chicago  trade  paper  gave  the  following  grades  in  July, 
1912. 

Extras,  candled  for  city  trade 22c. 

.    Firsts,  graded  70  per  cent  fresh 17J^c. 

Ordinary,  firsts 16c. 

Miscellaneous  lots,  cases  included 15c.  to  16c. 

No.  1  Dirties 14c.  to  14^c. 

Checks 12^c.  to  13c. 


*Bulletin  No.  162,  Kansas  experiment  station,  p.  251. 


358  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  preservation  of  eggs  during  low  prices,  to  sell  when 
they  are  high,  is  a  common  practice.  The  egg  easily  spoils 
under  a  hot  sun  or  in  warm  moist  weather.  Germs  of  rot 
develop  rapidly  in  the  egg  at  55  degrees  or  higher,  con- 
sequently it  is  desirable  to  keep  them  below  this  temperature 
until  they  can  be  used.  In  cold  storage,  a  temperature  of 
34  degrees  is  maintained. 

The  Storrs  experiment  station  recommends  the  use  of 
water  glass  (sodium  silicate)  for  preserving  eggs.  This  is  a 
liquid  that  sells  at  about  $1.25  a  gallon.  The  preserving 
fluid  is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  one  quart  of  the  water 
glass  in  nine  quarts  of  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  cooled. 
Stone  crocks  or  barrels  make  good  receptacles  for  preserva- 
tion. These  should  be  well  scalded  before  using,  and  then 
kept  in  a  place  where  the  temperature  does  not  rise  above  60 
degrees.  The  best  eggs  for  preservation  are  those  laid  in 
April,  May,  and  early  June. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Compare  different  parts  of  the  egg. 

2.  Explain  the  method  of  testing  eggs. 

3.  Describe  the  stage  of  incubation  on  the  second,  eighth,  and 
twelfth  days. 

4.  Describe  the  methods  by  which  the  chick  gets  out  of  the  egg. 

5.  Why  is  moisture  necessary  during  incubation? 

6.  Describe  the  incubator. 

7.  How  should  the  egg  for  incubation  be  selected  and  cared  for? 

8.  Compare  eggs  for  size  and  weight. 

9.  Describe  Professor  Philips'  ideal  of  market  grades. 
10.  Give  method  for  preservation. 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION  359 

SOME  THINGS  YOU  MIGHT  DO 

11.  Boil  an  egg  hard  for  three  minutes,  and  when  cold  separate 
into  four  parts — shell,  membrane,  white,  and  yolk. 

12.  Test  some  eggs  by  candling,  either  from  an  egg  case  or  from 
those  being  incubated. 

13.  Prepare  plans  of  a  brooder,  and  make  one  from  the  plans. 

14.  Go  to  a  grocery  and  inspect  a  quantity  of  eggs,  and  report  on 
what  you  saw  as  to  size,  shape,  color,  and  condition. 

15.  Find  market  grades  and  quotations  on  eggs  in  at  least  three 
markets.     Make  comparisons. 

16.  Bring  a  sample  dozen  of  your  home  eggs  to  school  for  inspec- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

The  organs  of  digestion  of  the  fowl  perform  their  work 
and  have  the  same  influence  on  the  food  as  do  the  stomach 
and  intestines  of  animals.  The  form  of  these  organs,  how- 
ever, is  peculiar  to  birds.  They  may  be  briefly  described  as 
follows : 

1.  The  beak,  a  hard,  horny  part  for  breaking,  tearing, 
pulling  or  picking  up  food. 

2.  The  mouth  and  tongue,  within  and  back  of  the  beak. 

3.  The  gullet,  a  tube  which  extends  to 

4.  The  crop,  which  lies  in  front  and  at  the  base  of  the 
neck.    Here  the  food  accumulates  and  is  somewhat  softened 
by  digestive  fluids. 

5.  The  stomach,  where  food  from  the  crop  is  mixed  with 
the  gastric  juice. 

6.  The  gizzard,  a  tough  muscular  organ  containing  small 
particles  of  stone.    Here  the  food  is  ground  to   a  pulp, 
mixed  with  digestive  fluid,  and  then  moves  on  to 

7.  The    intestines,    where    the   last   stage   of   digestion 
takes  place. 

The  foods  suitable  for  fowls  vary  widely  in  kind  and 
character.  In  fact,  farm  poultry  will  eat  almost  anything 
that  has  any  nutritive  value.  So  adaptable  are  fowls  to  local 
conditions,  that  as  a  rule  they  are  fed  the  cheapest  and  most 
common  foods  grown  in  the  region  in  which  they  are  kept. 
Very  naturally,  in  America  corn  is  most  commonly  fed,  with 
wheat  or  its  by-products  next  in  favor.  In  Japan,  rice  is 
the  food  generally  used.  The  kind  of  food,  however,  should 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  361 

vary  according  to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  birds,  and  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  kept.  If  for  fattening,  then  a 
carbonaceous  food  is  best;  but  if  for  eggs,  then  that  of  a 
protein  nature  should  be  used.  As  a  rule,  where  grains  are 
fed,  those  rich  in  protein  are  best,  for  the  reason  that  the  fowl 
applies  its  food  mainly  to  flesh  and  egg  production,  both  of 
which  products  contain  much  protein. 

The  appetite  of  fowls  for  different  kinds  of  food  is  well 
worth  observing.  They  eat  grain  or  concentrated  feed  with 
great  relish,  and  when  in  confinement  this  is  the  kind  most 
used  at  regular  feeding  times.  However,  they  are  extremely 
fond  of  meat,  table  scraps,  tender  herbs  and  grass,  the  clo- 
vers, either  green  or  cured  as  hay,  and  of  insects,  worms,  etc. 
In  fact  no  one  class  of  food  seems  most  relished,  and  poultry- 
men  generally  agree  that  variety  in  the  diet  usually  gives  the 
best  results,  from  both  the  health  and  the  producing  point  of 
view. 

The  special  preparation  of  feed  for  fowls  naturally 
depends  upon  conditions.  Small  particles  are  usually  pref- 
erable to  large  ones.  Wheat  and  other  small  grains  are 
very  satisfactory.  Large  grains  like  corn  are  best  cracked 
or  broken.  Ground  or  pulverized  feeds,  singly  or  in  mixture, 
are  known  as  mashes.  Where  no  water  is  used,  this  food  is 
called  dry  mash;  with  water,  a  wet  mash.  Clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  is  often  thrown  into  the  yard,  the  fowls  readily  eating 
the  leaves  and  delicate  parts.  The  hay  also  may  be  cut 
and  mixed  with  the  mash.  Young  chicks  require  fine, 
easily  digested  food,  like  oatmeal,  cracked  wheat,  finely- 
granulated  corn,  chopped  vegetables,  etc.  Skim  milk  also 
is  a  valuable  food  for  growing  chickens. 

Green  food  for  fowls  causes-  them  to  respond  very  rapidly 
in  increased  growth  or  egg  production.  Coarse  vegetables 
are  often  sliced  or  chopped  into  small  pieces  before  feeding, 


362 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


Fig.  198.  Fowls  eating  cabbage  suspended 
just  above  the  head.  Reproduced  from  the 
"Poultry  Manual." 


although  entire  cabbages  or  roots  may  be  hung  in  the  house 
or  fastened  to  nails  on  the  walls,  from  which  points  they  will 

be  picked  to  pieces.  In 
recent  years  sprouted  oats 
have  been  extensively 
made  use  of  for  feed,  es- 
pecially for  young  chicks. 
The  common  plan  is  to 
make  a  wooden  rack-like 
'*z •_-*•  arrangement,  to  contain 
series  of  shallow  pans. 
The  desired  amount  of 
oats  are  taken  and  put 
into  a  vessel  and  covered  with  warm 
water  and  let  stand  over  night. 
The  surplus  water  is  then  drained 
off  and  the  oats  are  spread  over  the 
pans  to  a  depth  of  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  oats  should 
then  be  placed  in  a  room,  preferably 
a  basement  or  cellar,  having  a  tem- 
perature of  60  to  65  degrees.  The 
oats  should  be  sprinkled  daily  with 
tepid  water,  and  to  provide  drain- 
age, the  bottom  of  the  pans  should 
be  perforated  with  small  holes.  In 
about  ten  days  the  sprouts  will  be 
ready  to  feed  to  the  chickens,  and 
should  be  used  sparingly  at  the  start. 
The  amount  of  food  necessary 
for  fowls  depends  entirely  upon 
circumstances,  such  as  the  age  and 


Flg.  199.  Rack  for  8prout. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


363 


Company.  By 


kind  of  fowl,  conditions  of  keep,  etc.      The  best  way  is 

to  prepare  the  desired  food  in  given  proportions,  and  then 

feed  as  much  as  will  be 

eaten  with  a  good  appe- 

tite. 

Regularity  in   feeding 

fowls     is    essential.      On 

many  farms   the   poultry 

must    forage    for     them- 

selves, but  under  proper 

conditions  special  feeding 

takes  place  morning  and 

evening.      The  common  custom   is   to  feed  early  in  the 

morning,  about  noon,  and  just  before  they  go  to  roost. 

Regularity  of  feeding  also  brings  the  fowls   into  intimate 

touch  with   the  poultryman,   and  enables  him  to    handle 

them  and  watch  their  condition  to  the  best  advantage. 

Frequency  of  feeding  fowls 
depends  upon  the  age,  condition, 
and  purpose  for  which  they  are 
kept.  Young  chicks  should  be  fed 
four  or  five  times  daily.  The  feed- 
ing of  mature  fowls  varies  among 
poultrymen,  some  feeding  twice 
and  others  three  times  a  day.  If 
one  has  time  to  look  after  the 
stock  in  detail,  three  feeds  a  day 
for  fowls  in  limited  yards  will  give 

Fig.  201.    A  feed  hopper  used  at   better       results       than       will       tWO. 

^SS^^SSSSSffSS:  Some  use  what  are  called   "hop- 

pers"   or    "self    feeders."     This 

is  a  box-like  arrangement  containing  more  or  less  feed,  and 
from  which  the  fowls  can  eat  freely  at  any  time.    Hop- 


364 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


pers  are  in  common  use  among  poultry  specialists,  ana  are 
regarded  with  favor.  Scattering  grain  in  cut  straw  or  floor 
litter  is  a  good  plan,  for  it  keeps  the  fowls  busy  and  en- 
sures slow  eating,  both  of  which  habits  are  desirable. 
Some  feed  a  mash  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  grain  being 
used  morning  and  night.  Some  prefer  one  method  and 
some  another.  The  dry  mash  is  a  favorite  in  some  places 
and  the  wet  in  others. 

The  effect  of  food  on  the  quality  of  the  egg  is  very  notice- 
able in  some  cases.  Foods  of  strong  odor,  such  as  onions, 
impart  objectionable  flavor  to  eggs.  Corn  gives  a  rich 

yellow  yolk,  while  most 
other  grains  produce  less 
color.  Green  food  and 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
also  furnish  good  color 
to  the  egg. 

Forced  feeding  of 
fowls  may  be  done  in 
two  ways,  one  when  the 
feeder  simply  gives  the 
birds  more  feed  than  they 
need  or  would  eat  under  natural  conditions ;  the  other  being 
a  special  artificial  feeding  process  known  as  cramming, 
wherein  the  crop  is  filled  with  food  by  the  use  of  a  machine, 
and  the  fowl  fattened  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Of  course 
what  would  be  a  forced  feeding  of  one  fowl  might  not  be 
of  another,  because  of  difference  in  capacity. 

Referring  to  this  subject  of  forced  feeding,  Robinson 
says:*  " Forced  feeding  is  almost  universal  among  poultry- 
men.  All  regular,  good  feeding  is  in  a  sense  forced  feeding. 
Even  under  natural  conditions,  with  opportunity  to  balance 

*Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture.     1911,  page  213. 


Fig.  202.     Forced  feeding  in    Engla 
courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald. 


By 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  365 

their  own  rations,  full-fed  poultry  develop  faster  and  better 
individually,  but  at  the  cost  of  shorter  life  .and  reduction  of 
vitality  in  the  offspring.  The  poultryman's  object  is  to  get 
as  much  as  possible  out  of  the  birds  in  the  shortest  possible 
time;  that  is,  to  market  as  soon  as  possible  those  destined 
primarily  for  the  table,  and  to  keep  laying  and  breeding 
poultry  only  as  long  as  they  are  highly  productive.  He 
forces  by  feeding,  but  not  (intentionally)  to  the  danger 
point,  just  as  a  careful  horseman  often  drives  his  horse  much 
faster  and  farther  than  the  horse  would  go  of  its  own  accord, 
yet  avoids  over-driving." 

The  use  of  mineral  foods  by  fowls  is  even  more  important 
than  with  farm  animals.  Growth  in  proportion  is  really 
much  greater  with  the  fed  fowl  than  the  four-footed  animal, 
while  the  production  of  eggs  requires  a  considerable  amount 
of  mineral  matter.  The  common  supply  of  food  does  not 
always  furnish  enough  of  the  mineral  substances,  and  espe- 
cially lime,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  fowl.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  laying  hen.  Consequently  some  other 
material  must  be  added,  and  green  ground  or  broken  burned 
bone,  granulated  dry  bone,  and  finely  broken  stone  are 
commonly  used  to  serve  this  need.  Ground  or  finely  broken 
oyster  shells  have  always  been  popular  for  laying  hens.  As 
to  the  exact  needs  of  the  body  for  mineral  food,  we  do  not 
know,  but  it  may  be  assumed,  as  based  on  practice  anji  the 
result  secured  with  farm  animals,  that  the  mineral  substances 
play  a  part  in  nutrition.  Robinson,  however,  believes  that 
in  "good  feeding  of  mixed  rations,"  under  range  conditions 
young  birds  get  all  the  mineral  elements  they  require,  and 
adult  birds  all  they  need,  except  for  producing  egg  shells. 
He  does  not  think  grit  is  necessary,  and  since  1902  has  fed 
none  to  poultry,  except  in  the  first  feeds  of  young  ducks  and 


366 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


geese.  Granulated  charcoal  is  frequently  used,  being 
regarded  as  valuable  for  sour  stomach  and  indigestion  and 
as  a  blood  purifier. 

Water  for  fowls  should  be  clean  and  pure.  Drinking 
fountains  in  which  clean  water  may  always  be  found  are 
commendable.  Fowls  are  rather  frequent  drinkers,  and 
should  always  have  plenty  of  clean  water  available.  In 

winter,    care    should    be 
taken   to   see  that  water 
and  not    ice  or   snow  is 
supplied.     A  flock  of  fifty 
hens  will  use  from  four  to 
six  quarts  of  water  a  day. 
Feeding     rations    for 
fowls  naturally  vary,  some 
Fig.  203.    TWO   cheaply   made  drinking  persons  preferring  one  ra- 

fountains.     These  are  jars  filled  with  water    ,•  i  ,1 

and  turned  with  mouths  down  on  pans  of  tlOn  and  SOme  another, 
water.  Photograph  from  Ohio  State  Univ-  TV/T  4-  f  j-V,  U 

ersity  College  of    Agriculture.  Most    Of  these   here   glVPn 

are  easily  secured  or  may 

be  readily  prepared,  as  the  foods  used  in  the  combinations 
are  grown  over  a  wide  extent  of  country.  The  rations 
given  are  quoted  from  reports,  and  so  differ  in  total 
amounts  and  in  statement  of  weights  or  parts.  However, 
the  common  method  is  to  mix  up  a  quantity  of  feed,  and 
then  use  as  much  as  the  flock  requires. 

Rations  for  young  chicks  in  brooders,  used  at  the  Maine 
3xperiment  station: 

Feed  for  first  three  days  infertile  eggs,  boiled  for  one-half 
hour  and  then  ground  up,  shell  and  all,  in  a  meat  chopper, 
and  mixed  with  six  times  their  bulk  of  rolled  oats.  Feed  with 
chick  grit  on  the  brooder  floor.  Feed  at  about  9  A,  M.  and 
at  4.30  p.  M.  for  the  first  21  days. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  367 

On  the  third  or  fourth  day,  in  addition,  commence  about 
daylight  and  at  noon,  and  for  five  or  six  weeks  feed  the 
following : 

Cracked  wheat 15  parts  by  weight 

Fine  oat  meal ,  ...  10 

Fine  cracked  corn 15 

Fine  cracked  peas 

Broken  rice 2 

Chick  grit 5 

Fine  charcoal 2 

At  about  three  weeks  of  age,  substitute  the  following  wet 
mash  for  the  egg-and-oat  mixture : 

Wheat  bran  (clean) 2  parts  by  weight 

Corn  meal 4     " 

Middlings  or  red-dog  flour 2     "         "       " 

Linseed  meal 1     " 

Beef  scrap 2 

Rations  for  chicks  from  birth  to  maturity,  recommended 

by  Professor  F.  S.  Jacoby,  Ohio  State  University. 
• 

GRAINS  MASHES  (DRY) 

No.  1.  From  1st  day  to  6th  week         No.  3.  From  1st  to  21st  day 

2  Ibs.  fine  cracked  corn  4  Ibs.  rolled  oats 

3  Ibs.  cracked  wheat  3  Ibs.  corn  meal 

No.  2.  From  6th  week  to  maturity  3  lbs-  wheat  middlings 

2  Ibs.  cracked  corn  ?  lbs.   bran 

2  lbs.  whole  wheat  f  ^s.  sifted  meat  scraps 

Green  foods  1  "?•  alfalfa  meal 

Chopped  beets  %  »•  bone  meal 

Cut  clover  or  alfalfa  X  *.  fine  charcoal 

Lettuce  leaves  No.  4.  From  21st  day  to  muturity 

Grits  1  Ib.  rolled  oats 

Chick  grit  1  Ib.  corn  meal 

Chick  bone  1  Ib.  wheat  middlings 

Fine  charcoal  2  lbs.  bran 

1  Ib.    sifted  meat  scraps 
y2  Ib.  alfalfa  meal 

2  oz.  fine  charcoal 

Feed  No.  1  ration  in  litter  of  cut  straw  or  hay,  twice  a 
day,  at  7  A.  M.  and  5  P.  M.  Feed  what  the  chicks  will  eat  up 
clean  in  15  minutes  in  the  morning,  and  all  they  need  at 
night. 


368  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Feed  No.  2  ration  in  open  hoppers  from  the  sixth  week 
until  the  birds  are  brought  into  the  laying  pens  in  the  fall. 

Feed  No.  3  ration  as  a  crumbly  mash,  by  mixing  skimmed 
milk  or  buttermilk,  three  times  a  day,  9  A.M.,  11:30  A.  M., 
and  2 :30  p.  M.  From  the  first  to  the  third  day  add  chopped, 
infertile  eggs  (hard  cooked)  to  the  mash  in  the  proportion 
of  1  part  egg  to  3  parts  mash,  also  a  small  quantity  of 
chopped  onions,  cabbage,  or  lettuce.  After  the  third  day 
the  eggs  may  be  discontinued,  and  the  quantity  of  vegetables 
slightly  increased.  Feed  in  shallow  trays  30  inches  long,  6 


Fig.  204.     Ration  for  mixing.     Photograph  from  Ohio  State  University  College 
of  Agriculture. 

inches  wide  and  2  inches  deep.  A  small  quantity  of  chick  grit 
and  granulated  bone  should  be  fed  in  the  mash  for  a  few  days 
until  the  chicks  become  accustomed  to  it,  after  which  they 
can  be  fed  in  open  hoppers.  After  the  fourteenth  day,  the 
noon  feeding  of  crumbly  mash  may  be  discontinued,  and  a 
tray  of  dry  mash  left  before  the  chicks  at  all  times.  As 
the  chicks  become  accustomed  to  the  dry  mash,  the  morning 
and  then  the  afternoon  feeding  of  crumbly  mash  may  be 
discontinued.  Feed  green  food  once  a  day. 

Feed  No.  4  ration  dry  in  open  hoppers  until  the  birds  are 
brought  to  the  laying  pens  in  the  fall. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  369 

Green  food  is  fed  in  the  crumbly  mash  twice  a  day  during 
the  first  two  weeks,  and  thereafter  once  a  day  in  the  litter. 

Chick  grit  and  bone  are  fed  sparingly  in  the  crumbly 
mash  until  the  chicks  become  used  to  it,  after  which  it  can  be 
fed  in  open  hoppers. 

Charcoal  is  fed  sparingly  in  the  mash  at  first,  and  can 
later  be  fed  in  hoppers,  providing  the  chicks  do  not  over  eat 
of  it. 

These  rations  are  in  some  detail,  but  they  are  based  on 
careful,  practical  study  and  feeding  and  give  very  satis- 
factory results.  Only  careful  feeding  gives  the  best  results 
in  raising  chickens. 

Rations  for  laying  hens  used  in  different  sections  of  the 
United  States,  quoted  from  various  authorities. 

(In  New  York  State.     G.  Arthur  Bell,   in   Farmers'   Bulletin  287, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

200  Ibs.  cracked  corn] 

360  Ibs.  wheat  [•         Fed  dry  in  the  litter  twice  daily. 

130  Ibs.  oats  J 

Also  the  following  dry  mash  in  a  hopper : 

32  parts  corn  meal 
30  parts  meat  meal 
30  parts  ground  alfalfa 

2  parts  oyster  shell 

1  part    grit 

1  part   charcoal 

(In  Maine,  Bulletin  180,  Maine  station,  page  125.) 

Early  in  the  morning,  for  each  100  hens,  four  quarts  of 
screened  cracked  corn  are  scattered  on  the  litter,  which  is 
six  or  eight  inches  deep.  This  is  not  mixed  in  the  litter,  the 
birds  doing  this  themselves,  as  they  commence  scratching  it 
at  once.  At  10  A.  M.  they  are  fed  in  the  same  way  two 
quarts  each  of  wheat  and  oats.  Along  one  side  of  the  room 

24 — 


370  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

is  a  feed  trough  with  slatted  front.     In  it  is  kept  the  following 
supply  of  dry  meals  thoroughly  mixed  together: 

200  Ibs.  clean  wheat  bran 

100  Ibs.  corn  meal 

100  Ibs.  middlings 

100  Ibs.  gluten  meal  or  brewer's  grains 

100  Ibs.  linseed  meal 

100  Ibs.  beef  scrap 

(In  Ohio,  at  Ohio  State  University.} 

FOR  GRAIN  DRY  MASH 

15  Ibs.  cracked  corn  4  Ibs.  corn  meal 

10  Ibs.  wheat  6  Ibs.  wheat  middlings 

5  Ibs.  heavy  oats  4  Ibk  bran 

Green  food,  grits  and  oyster      4  Ibs.  meat  scraps 
shells  1  Ib.  linseed  oil  meal 

1  Ib.    alfalfa  meal 
}-£  Ib.    granulated  charcoal 
Tablespoonful  salt 

Feed  the  grain  mixture  morning  and  afternoon  in  a  deep 
litter  of  straw.  Feed  sparingly  in  the  morning,  but  give 
the  hens  all  they  will  eat  in  the  afternoon.  Feed  the  dry 
mash  in  a  hopper  which  is  open  at  all  times.  Keep  grit  and 
shell  in  open  hoppers.  Feed  green  food  once  a  day. 

(In  Minnesota,  Bulletin  119,  Minnesota  station,  page  153.} 

A  mash  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  finely  ground 
corn,  oats,  or  shorts,  mixed  with  about  10  per  cent  of  cooked 
meat,  green  cut  bone,  or  beef  scraps  are  mixed  together  dry. 
Then  thoroughly  mix  with  about  one-third  this  bulk  of 
steeped  clover  leaves  or  finely  cut  clover,  which  has  pre- 
viously been  scalded.  Another  mixture,  to  be  only  slightly 
moistened  with  water,  is  the  following : 

2  parts  bran 
1  part  wheat  shorts 
1  part  ground  corn 
1  part  ground  oats 
1  part  beef  scraps 
Mo  part  charcoal 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  371 

(In  North  Carolina,  Bulletin  211,  North  Carolina  station,  page  64.) 

In  an  experiment  extending  from  December  to  May, 
different  rations  were  fed  to  pens  of  10  hens  each.  The 
largest  production  of  eggs  and  the  least  cost  occurred  in  pens 
14  and  15,  fed  the  following: 

4  parts  corn  meal 
4  parts  wheat  bran 
2  parts  meat  meal 
2  parts  bone  meal 

Cotton-seed  meal  was  used  in  three  cases.  Pens  20  and 
22,  fed  four  parts  each  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  cotton 
seed  meal,  did  very  unequal  work,  one  pen  laying  225  eggs 
and  the  other  378. 

(In  Kansas,  Bulletin  164,  Kansas  station,  page  290.) 

The  following  laying  ration  has  been  a  success  in  feeding 
White  Leghorns  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks.  Between 
February  1  and  November  1,  1909,  one  White  Plymouth 
Rock  produced  201  eggs  and  another  196,  at  a  cost  for  feed 
of  90  cents  each.  The  Leghorns  averaged  166.1  eggs  for 
the  same  nine  months,  at  a  slightly  less  cost.  Following  are 
the  rations: 

GRAIN  MASH 

10  parts  wheat  6  parts  wheat  shorts 

10  parts  corn  3  parts  bran 

5  parts  oats  6  parts  corn  meal 

5  parts  beef  scrap 
1  part  alfalfa  meal 

Fattening  ration  for  fowls.  Fowls  to  be  fattened  should 
be  kept  in  a  limited  enclosure  and  given  but  little  exercise, 
and  fed  a  fattening  ration.  Specialists  place  chickens  in 
crates  and  fatten  them  rapidly  for  three  or  four  weeks. 
Professor  Jackson  of  the  Pennsylvania  station,  reporting  on 
fattening  in  Bulletin  No.  107,  says:  "The  common  ration 
of  corn  meal  is  rarely  as  satisfactory  as  a  combination  of 
grains.  An  excellent  mixture  is  equal  parts  of  finely  ground 


372  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

corn  meal,  buckwheat,  and  oats  with  the  hulls  removed. 
A  ration  of  one  to  two  parts  corn  meal,  one  part  middlings 
and  five  per  cent  meat  scrap  may  be  used  if  it  is  not  possible 
to  secure  the  other  grains.  It  is  important,  whatever  grains 
are  used,  that  they  be  finely  ground.  If  this  ration  is  mixed 
with  sour  milk,  no  animal  food  will  be  needed." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  the  above  rations,  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  and  wheat  bran  or  middlings  are  the  standard 
foods  used.  Meat  meal  or  beef  scrap,  skimmed  milk,  and 
clover  or  alfalfa,  are  always  desirable.  In  the  far  West, 
Kaffir  corn  or  millet  seed  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Where 
barley  is  commonly  grown,  this  is  to  be  recommended  as  a 
feed,  and  may  be  used  in  place  of  corn  if  desired. 

A  REVIEW  OF  THE  SITUATION 

1.  Compare  the  crop  and  the  gizzard. 

2.  What  kind  of  diet  should  be  given  a  fowl? 

3.  How  often  should  poultry  be  fed? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  forced  feeding,  and  when  it  is  prac- 
ticed. 

5.  Why  is  mineral  matter  fed,  and  under  what  conditions? 

6.  Under  what  conditions  should  watei  be  supplied? 

7.  Give  the  method  of  feeding  young  chicks  in  brooders  as  used  at 
the  Maine  station. 

8.  Give  two  rations  for  laying  hens  used  in  different  states,  and  the 
method  of  feeding. 

9.  Name  the  five  most  common  feeding  stuffs  used. 

SOME  LITTLE  EXPERIMENTS  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 

10.  Carefully  examine  the  crop  and  digestive  organs  of  a  chicken. 

(a)  When  taken  from  a  freshly-killed  fowl. 

(b)  Freeze  a  fowl  solid  in  winter,  and  with  a  saw,  cut  it 
in  two  lengthwise  and  somewhat  on  one  side,  to  show 
the  digestive  organs  in  place. 

11.  Make  up  two  pens  of  hens,  equal  in  number.     Feed  one   lot 
a  carbonaceous  food,  like  corn;  the  other  a  protein  food,  such  as  wheat. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  373 

Give  some  green  food,  oyster  shells,  and  grits.    Keep  a  record  of  egg 
production,  and  after  some  weeks  report  to  the  school. 

12.  Make  up  two  pens  of  hens.    Feed  alike,  except  to  give  one  pen 
oyster  shells,  and  allow  none  to  the  other.    Keep  a  record  of  the  num- 
ber and  condition  of  the  eggs,  and  report. 

13.  Prepare  what  you  believe  to  be  a  good  ration  of  home-grown 
feeds  for  growing  chickens,  and  bring  a  sample  to  school  for  inspection 
and  criticism. 

14.  Report  on  the  -rations  fed  by  any  two  or  more  poultrymen  in 
the  community  in  which  you  live. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  need  of  housing  or  shelter  for  fowls  varies  with  the 
section  of  the  country  and  the  local  conditions  under  which 
they  are  kept.  While  close  housing  is  "ho  longer  needed  to 
the  extent  formerly  thought  necessary,  naturally  more  pro- 
tection is  required  in  the  colder  sections  than  in  the  warmer. 
In  winter,  in  New  England,  where  the  ground  is  usually 
covered  with  snow,  shelter  is  a  necessity;  while  in  Texas, 
where  snow  rarely  falls,  less  protection  is  required. 

The  forms  and  styles  of  poultry  houses  differ  widely,  and 
no  one  kind  is  regarded  as  the  best.  A  collection  of  photo- 
graphs or  views  of  one  thousand  houses  will  show  a  very 
interesting  variety  of  style  and  construction.  Years  ago 
buildings  were  often  made  of  brick  or  stone,  at  great  expense, 
and  were  very  warm  and  almost  air  tight  in  winter.  In 
recent  years  the  construction  is  less  expensive,  and  fresh  air 
properly  supplied  is  an  important  feature. 

Several  types  of  poultry  houses,  each  for  a  special  purpose, 
are  more  or  less  in  use  in  this  country.  These  may  be  placed 
in  the  following  classes :  (a)  Laying  pen  house,  (b)  fattening 
house,  (c)  brooder  house,  (d)  colony  house,  (e)  shelter  coop. 
While  plans  and  details  of  construction  cannot  be  given  in 
the  limited  space  of  this  volume,  some  suggestions  of  interest 
and  value  may  be  given  that  are  well  worth  study. 

The  laying  pen  house  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing fowls  in  confinement,  in  groups  suitable  for  the  best 
results.  Yards  or  runs  limit  the  range  of  the  hens.  These 
houses  are  permanent  of  location  and  as  a  rule  are  substantial 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


375 


of  construction.  Formerly  they  were  made  with  tight  walls, 
had  glass  windows,  and  in  winter  the  air  within  was  kept  at 
as  comfortable  a  temperature  as  possible.  Sometimes  these 
houses  were  lathed  and  plastered.  Not  much  attention  was 
given  to  ventilation.  Houses  of  this  sort  are  not  built  as 
much  as  formerly;  and  if  they  are,  cloth  screens  on  the 
front  or  south  side  replace  most  of  the  glass,  pure  air  being 


Fig.  205. 


A  continuous  house  for  winter  layers. 
Houses.' ' 


Reproduced  from  "Poultry 


regarded  as  a  necessity.  In  many  cases,  these  houses  have 
open  front  windows,  except  in  the  coldest  winter  weather, 
when  the  cloth  screens  are  dropped.  Laying  pen  houses  are 
of  different  styles,  a  common  one  having  a  simple  single 
pitch  shed  roof,  with  a  height  of  6  or  7  feet  at  the  south,  and 
4  or  5  feet  at  the  rear.  It  is  best  to  have  the  house  of  a  depth 
that  will  allow  sunshine  to  reach  as  near  to  the  back  wall  as 
possible.  A  depth  of  14  feet  and  a  width  of  12  to  14  feet  for 


376 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


each  pen  is  a  satisfactory  size.     One  should  allow  5  square 
feet  for  each  bird  in  such  a  house.     In  a  house  of  this  sort 


1 1 


•"      \    \       ' 

a  y   n 


>  Trap 

t    Door 
Fig.  206.     Arrangement  of  interior  of  poultry  house  shown  in  Fig.  205. 

the  floor  should  be  made  of  concrete  in  order  to  make  it  rat 
proof  and  to  keep  it  dry.  This  floor  may  be  covered  with  cut 
straw  or  chaff,  and  be  used  in  cold  weather  as  a  scratching 
shed.  The  walls  should  be  tight  enough  to  prevent  drafts. 

The  roosts  may  be  placed 
just  above  a  low  platform 
at  the  rear  or  on  one 
side,  below  which  are  the 
nests.  In  front,  plenty  of 
window  space  should  be 
provided,  which  should  be 
covered  with  poultry  wire 
Fig.  207.  A  cheap  laying  house.  Photo-  netting,  and  also  have 

graph  by  courtesy  the  Poultry  Herald.  J.A _i_j.i_  _  _    j_  _    i_  _ 


dropped  during  very  cold  weather.     Doors   of    standard 
size  are  usually  placed  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  house, 


POULTRY  HOUSES  377 

with  wire  doors  in  the  partitions,  to  allow  passage  through 
the  various  pens.  In  houses  containing  many  pens,  doors 
are  sometimes  provided  to  give  entrance  from  the  pens 
into  the  yards. 

The  fattening  house  is  a  small  structure  containing  crates 
in  which  fowls  are  fattened,  arranged  along  each  side  of  a 
passage  way.  The  house  is  simple  of  construction,  and  has 
superior  ventilation  with  inferior  light,  as  fowls  are  best 
fattened  under  conditions  of  subdued  light.  Fattening 
crates  are  in  tiers,  with  feeding  trays  in  front  of  each, 
which  with  other  conditions  provide  for  the  least  amount 
of  labor  in  caring  for  the 
birds.  Houses  of  this 
kind  are  not  common  on 
American  farms,  but  are 
used  especially  by  men 
who  make  a  business  of 
fattening  fowls  for  market. 

The  brooder,  house  is 
for  the  purpose  of  shelter- 
ing yOUng  Chickens   Under    Fig.  208.    A  colony  house  and  brooder.   Pho- 
,,    .  tograph  by  courtesy  Prof.  F.  S.  Jacoby. 

conditions  of  uniform  heat, 

giving  them  protection  under  what  are  called  "hovers," 
comparable  with  the  shelter  under  the  mother's  wing. 
A  brooder  house  may  be  a  simple  box-like  affair  of  one 
room  6  by  8  feet  in  size,  with  the  hover  in  the  back 
and  a  door  and  window  in  front.  The  hover  is  round, 
about  3  feet  in  diameter,  and  resembles  a  pan  turned 
upside  down,  except  that  its  sides  are  made  of  cloth, 
which  is  slashed  at  the  edges.  Warm  air  is  conducted  into 
the  hover,  and  here  the  young  chicks  gather,  as  under  a 
mother's  wing.  The  small  brooder  house  has  either  a  kero- 
sene or  gasoline  lamp  attachment,  by  which  the  necessary 


378 


BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


warm  air  is  supplied.  On  large  poultry  farms,  the  brooder 
house  may  be  of  considerable  size,  containing  a  series  of  pens, 

in  the  end  of  each  of  which  is  a 
hover,  warm  air  being  supplied 
by  a  hot  water  heating  plant 
located  in  one  end  of  the  build- 
ing. Brooder  houses  should  be 
well  lighted,  warm  and  dry,  and 
rat  proof. 

The  colony  house  is  a  small, 
single-room  building  containing 
roosts  and  nests,  and  located  in 

Fig.  209..   A    portable    colony  a    yard     Or     ^d.         It      IS     simple 

and  cheap  of  construction,  and 
is  usually  portable,  so  as  to  be 

easily  moved  from  place  to  place.  There  is  no  one 
style  of  house;  and  structures  are  made  of  all  kinds  of 
material,  ranging  from  piano  boxes,  at  a  total  cost  of  3  or  4 
dollars,  up  to  those  made  with  care  by  a  carpenter,  costing 


Fig.  210.      A  cheap,  open-front  colony  house.     Photograph  by  courtesy    the 
Poultry  Herald. 


POULTRY  HOUSES  379 

$35  or  $40.  A  fairly  good  type  of  colony  house  has  both  a 
door  and  window  in  front,  the  latter  being  covered  with  wire 
screening,  and  with  a  curtain  to  be  used  for  cold  weather  pro- 
tection. A  small  window  in  one  end,  for  both  ventilation  and 
light,  and  a  wooden  floor  are  also  desirable  features.  Poul- 
trymen  having  houses  differing  widely  in  style  of  construc- 
tion and  lighting  seem  to  get  equally  good  results  from  their 
fowls.  Two  strong  arguments  in  behalf  of  the  colony  house 


Fig.  211.     A  large  colony  house  system.     Photograph  by  courtesy  the  Poultry 

Herald. 

are,  a  flock  of  about  the  right  size  may  be  kept  in  a  yard  of 
suitable  area;  also  the  house  may  be  shifted  from  time  to 
time  to  new  and  clean  soil  conditions,  thus  providing  good, 
permanent  sanitation.  Colony  houses  may  be  hauled  into 
grain  fields  after  the  harvest,  where  the  fowls  secure  uncom- 
monly good  forage  of  grain  and  insects. 

The  shelter  coop  is  usually  built  for  a  hen  and  a 
brood  of  chickens.  It  varies  much  in  construction.  Com- 
mon boxes  2  or  3  feet  square,  with  slat  or  wire  front; 
empty  barrels,  with  a  slat  attachment  at  one  end ;  and 
shelters  of  tent  or  A  shape,  are  frequently  seen.  These  coops 


380  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

should  be  made  so  as  to  enable  the  chicks  to  pass  freely  in  and 
out,  to  give  the  hens  dry  and  comfortable  shelter,  and  to 
protect  the  chicks  at  night  from  rats  and  other  vermin. 


Fig.  212.     Shelter  coops.     Photograph  by  courtesy  the   Poultry  Herald. 


Fig.  213.     An    A-shaped    shelter   coop.     Photograph   by    courtesy  Ohio  State 
University  College  of  Agriculture. 


POULTRY  HOUSES 


381 


The  location  and   construction   of  the   poultry  house 

require  careful  thought,  if  the  most  satisfactory  results  are 
to  be  secured.  Therefore  a  few  suggestions,  rather  general 
of  application,  are  here  given. 

The  site  of  the  poultry  building  should  be  where  drainage 
is  good  and  the  soil  naturally  dry.  Further,  the  elevation 
should  be  sufficient  for  a  good  circulation  of  air.  Under 
damp  conditions  throat  or  lung  trouble  is  very  likely  to 
occur.  In  damp  soil  of  a  clayey  or  loamy  nature,  intestinal 


Fig.  214.     A  brood  coop  and  yards.     Reproduced  from  "Poultry  Houses." 

and  other  parasites  that  affect  poultry  breed  more  freely 
than  elsewhere.  A  dry  location  promotes  clean  bodies  and 
feet,  which  mean  the  production  of  clean  eggs. 

The  size  of  the  poultry  house  should  depend  upon  the 
number  of  fowls  one  wishes  to  keep.  On  most  farms  large 
flocks  do  not  give  as  satisfactory  returns  as  small  ones.  With 
a  flock  of  50,  each  bird  should  be  allowed  5  square  feet  of 
room.  With  larger  flocks  not  quite  so  much  space  per  fowl 
will  be  required.  One  can  obtain  satisfactory  returns  with 
100  fowls  of  the  smaller  breeds  in  a  house  20  by  20  feet  floor 
space.  If  fowls  are  crowded,  good  results  in  egg  production 
can  not  be  expected. 


382  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  width  of  the  poultry  house  depends  upon  size  of  the 
flock.  Under  most  conditions,  a  house  14  or  16  feet  wide 
gives  an  ample  depth  for  each  pen.  One  should  plan  to  use 
standard  lengths  of  timber,  so  that  as  little  waste  as  possible 
will  occur  in  sawing. 

The  foundation  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  of  con- 
crete or  stone,  if  intended  for  a  permanent  laying  house. 
This  foundation  should  be  deep  enough  in  the  ground  not  to 
be  affected  by  the  action  of  frost,  and  should  rise  6  to  12 
inches  above  the  surface.  The  thickness  of  wall  will  depend 
on  local  conditions,  ranging  from  8  to  12  inches.  Portable 
colony  houses  may  be  built  on  4x4  runners.  Halpin  and 
Ocock,  of  Wisconsin  University,  recommend  the  use  of 
"two  small  trees  of  some  durable  wood  which  may  be 
flattened  off  on  top  and  tapered  off  at  both  ends  so  as  to  make 
a  satisfactory  runner." 

The  walls  of  the  poultry  houses  are  built  of  wood,  brick, 
concrete,  or  stone.  The  most  common  method  is  to  use  2x4 
studs  nailed  to  2x6  sills.  On  the  outside  of  the  studs  is 
fastened  a  layer  of  strong  tarred  paper,  over  which  matched 
siding  is  nailed  horizontally.  When  well  put  together 
this  makes  a  wall  free  from  drafts  and  very  satisfactory.  If 
rough  boards  are  used,  battens  or  strips  should  be  tacked  over 
any  cracks.  It  is  not  desirable  to  place  siding  over  the  studs 
on  the  inside,  for  in  that  case  rats  and  mice  will  find  a  place 
for  hiding.  A  wooden  wall  in  winter  is  most  satisfac- 
tory, as  solid  concrete  or  stone  may  be  moist  or  frosty 
under  some  conditions.  Concrete  or  brick  walls  that  are 
partly  hollow  are  preferable  to  the  solid  wall. 

The  roof  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  strong,  simple  and 
comparatively  inexpensive.  A  straight  lean-to  or  one-slant 
roof  is  most  common  and  can  be  built  with  least  cost.  If  the 
house  is  over  14  feet  wide,  the  usual  2x4  rafters  should  be 


POULTRY  HOUSES  383 

supported.  A  combination  roof  has  a  double  pitch,  having 
a  short  pitch  in  front  and  a  long  one  behind.  This  type  of 
roof  is  well  suited  to  buildings  wider  than  14  feet,  and  gives 
a  strong  construction.  A  two-pitch  or  gable-roof  house 
usually  has  rafters  of  the  same  length,  coming  to  a  ridge  in 
the  center.  This  gives  a  high  center  to  the  pen,  hence  a  loss 
of  heat,  so  that  in  winter  the  house  is  likely  to  be  cold.  A 
ceiling  is  sometimes  built  in  such  a  house,  and  attic  storage 
room  thus  provided.  What  is  called  the  monitor  roof,  has 


Fig.  215.    A  continuous  poultry  honso  with  ^aned  alley.     Photograph  by  courtesy 
the  Poultry  Herald. 

what  resembles  a  continuous  cupola  along  its  whole  length, 
with  adjustable  windows  in  the  south  side,  by  which  sun- 
light may  reach  the  rear  inside.  A  semi-monitor  roof  has 
one  long  sweep  of  rafter  for  perhaps  two-thirds  the  width 
of  the  house.  Below  the  high  point  of  rafter  a  vertical  wall 
is  dropped  sufficiently  to  allow  a  line  of  windows.  From  the 
bottom  of  the  window  sill,  a  shorter  length  of  rafter  gives  the 
necessary  front  pitch  to  the  roof.  There  are  also  houses 
with  the  fronts  slanting  to  the  ground,  and  others  of  wood  that 


3d4  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

have  roofs  of  the  tent  form,  with  no  side  walls  in  front 
or  behind.  A  roof  covering  of  rough  boards  and  asphalt 
or  tarred  composition  paper  of  some  sort,  gives  good  satis- 
faction. Wooden  shingles  in  most  localities  are  too  expen- 
sive, and  in  the  colder  sections  shingle  roofs  are  too  drafty 
and  cold  in  winter. 

The  floor  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  of  concrete  in  the 
permanent  house;  but  in  the  colony  house,  one  of  matched 


^to  w. 

Fig.  216.     A  slant-roof  colony  house.     Reproduced  from   "Poultry  Houses." 

flooring  is  best.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the 
floor  dry,  and  to  prevent  the  harboring  of  rats  or  other  ver- 
min. 

Partition  material  in  the  poultry  house  should  usually  be 
of  wire  netting.  If  the  house  is  long,  a  close  wooden  parti- 
tion at  intervals  is  desirable,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  build- 
ing, and  also  to  prevent  drafts.  A  house  having  six  pens 
might  have  one  solid  central  partition,  and  the  others  of  wire. 

The  windows  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  adjusted  to 
local  conditions.  In  the  Southern  states,  glass  should  be 


POULTRY  HOUSES  385 

unnecessary.  In  the  colder  North,  an  arrangement  by  which 
one  sliding  glass  window  can  be  arranged  in  connection  with 
cloth-screened  openings,  will  give  the  best  satisfaction.  The 
windows  should  have  a  covering  of  wire  screening,  with  cur- 
tains that  are  to  be  used  only  in  severe  weather.  Some  men, 
in  fact,  keep  permanent  open  fronts  in  their  houses,  never 
using  glass  or  cloth  screen,  and  do  not  consider  that  their 
birds  suffer  from  cold  at  any  time. 

Perches  should  be  in  the  warmer  part  of  the  pen,  free 
from  drafts,  and  not  high  above  the  floor.  The  perches 
should  be  12  inches  apart,  and  not  nearer  the  wall  than  15 
inches.  They  should  be  fastened  together  in  a  frame  and 
hinged  to  the  wall,  being  supported  level  with  standards,  or 
legs.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  board  platform  a  few  inches 
below  the  perch,  on  which  the  droppings  may  be  caught. 
The  perches  may  be  raised  as  desired,  and  the  droppings 
removed.  Perches  of  2x4  pieces,  on  edge,  with  rounded 
corners  are  recommended. 

The  nests  should  be  against  the  wall,  and  be  12  or  14 
inches  square,  according  to  the  size  of  fowl.  Nests  are  some- 
times placed  below  the  dropping  board,  the  hens  entering 
from  the  back  and  the  eggs  being  removed  from  the  front 
by  means  of  a  hinged  door.  These  nests  are  rather  dark, 
which  is  an  advantage,  for  hens  under  such  conditions  rarely 
eat  their  eggs.  Open  nests  may  be  fastened  to  the  side  of 
the  pen  if  desired,  a  common  method.  Trap  nests  are  used 
in  many  houses  today.  The  principle  of  this  nest  is  that 
when  the  hen  enters,  she  springs  a  trap  door,  and  so  is  con- 
fined until  released  by  the  poultryman.  Thus  he  knows 
just  what  hens  lay  each  day,  and  makes  a  record  of  the  same. 
Hens  laying  in  trap  nests  usually  are  numbered  with  a 
metal  leg  band. 


386  BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

A  dust  bath  in  the  poultry  house  is  most  important.  The 
process  of  dusting  is  the  method  by  which  the  bird  keeps 
herself  free  from  lice  and  similar  pests.  Many  poultrymen 
have  a  corner  of  the  pen  arranged  so  that  road  dust,  sifted 
coal  ashes,  or  dry  sand  may  be  put  there  for  dusting.  A 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches  is  sufficient. 

IF  YOU  HAD  THE  "CHICKEN  FEVER,"  COULD  YOU 

1.  Describe  the  important  features  of  the  laying  house? 

2.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  fattening  house? 

3.  Describe  a  hover  and  its  use? 

4.  Tell  of  the  construction  and  value  of  the  colony  house? 

5.  Compare  a  good  and  a  bad  site  for  poultry  buildings? 

6.  Figure  out  the  size  of  house  you  might  need,  and  tell  why? 

7.  Compare  the  single-  and  the  double-pitch  roof? 

8.  Discuss  the  subject  of  window  covering? 

9.  Instruct  in  the  essentials  of  perch  construction? 

10.  Tell  where  to  place  the  nests  and  the  size  they  should  be 
made? 

SOME  INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  BRING  TO  SCHOOL 

11.  A  picture  of  the  poultry  yard  at  home,  showing  buildings. 

12.  A  picture  of  the  best  poultry  building  you  know  of  in  the 
vicinity. 

13.  A  drawing  showing  cross-section  construction  of  some  poultry 
house  of  which  you  know. 

14.  A  report  on  the  roost  arrangement  in  five  different  poultry 
buildings. 

15.  A  report  on  the  location  of  a  few  poultry  yards  on  different 
farms. 

16.  A  statement  of  the  number  of  farmers  in  the  vicinity  who  keep 
chickens  but  have  no  special  poultry  houses  for  them. 


APPENDIX 


TABLE   A 

Dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  some  common  feeding  stuffs. 
(Total  pounds  in  100  of  feed.) 


Kind  of  feed. 

Dry  matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fat 

Corn  
Corn-and-cob  meal  .... 
Oats  

8i).4 
84.9 
89.6 

7.8 
4.4 

8.8 

66.8 

60.0 
49.2 

4.3 
2.9 
4.3 

Soy  beans  

88.3 

29.1 

23.3 

14.6 

Gluten  feed 

908 

21  3 

52.8 

2.9 

Wheat  Bran  

88.1 

11.9 

42.0 

2.5 

Cotton-seed  meal 

93.0 

37.6 

21.4 

9.6 

Linseed  meal  .   .  . 

90.2 

30.2 

32.0 

6.9 

Corn  fodder,  green  
Corn  stover,  field  cured  . 
Corn  silage  

20.7 
59.5 
26.4 

1.0 
1.4 
1.4 

11.9 
31.2 
14.2 

0.4 
0.7 
0.7 

Alfalfa,  green  
Timothy  hay  
Red  clover  hav  

28.2 
86.8 
84.7 

3.6 

2.8 
7.1 

12.1 
42.4 

37.8 

0.4 
1.3 

1.8 

Alfalfa  hay  

91.9 

10.5 

40.5 

0.9 

Cow  pea  hay 

89.5 

9.2 

39.3 

1.3 

Turnips  (flat) 

9.9 

0.9 

6.4 

0.1 

Mangel-wurzel    
Tankage  

9.1 
93.0 

1.0 

50.1 

5.5 
0.0 

0.2 
11.6 

Skim  milk  (separator) 

9.4 

2.9 

5.3 

0.3 

Note:  The  above  table  is  compiled  from  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  Professor 
W.  A.  Henry,  1912  edition.  This  volume  contains  analyses  of  all  feeding  stuff  in 
use  in  an  important  degree  on  American  farms. 

A  TABLE  OF  FEEDING  STANDARDS 
The  following  are  a  number  of  standards  that  have  been 
arranged  from  Wolff's  feeding  tables,  and  are  given  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  pupil  to  work  out  a  few  easy 
problems  in  feeding.  Suppose  you  know  of  some  one  having 
a  cow  that  is  producing  about  22  pounds  of  milk  a  day.  If 
the  owner  is  using  feeds  that  are  given  in  Table  A,  then 
with  the  aid  of  that  table  and  this,  you  should  be  able  to 
figure  out  whether  or  not  the  cow  is  being  fed  right.  In 
these  standards,  each  1000  pounds  of  the  animal's  weight 


388 


APPENDIX 


requires  daily  the  amount  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutri- 
ents specified.  These  standards  are  not  for  growing,  young 
animals,  but  for  the  more  mature,  or  those  being  fattened. 
Wolff,  however,  does  give  standards  for  the  different  kinds 
of  young  growing  animals.  In  using  this  table  add  or  deduct 
the  dry  matter  and  nutrients  necessary,  according  to  the 
weight  of  animal. 

TABLE  B 
Total  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  required  per  day  per  1000  Ibs. 


Animal  and  purpose 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Horse  at  medium  work 
Herse  at  heavy  work 
Cattle,  partly  fattened 
Cattle,  nearly  fattened 
Milch  cow,  (daily  yield, 
11  Ibs.  milk)  

24 
26 
30 
26 

25 

29 
25 

28 
22 

36 
25 

2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 

1.6 

2.5 
2.9 

3.5 
2.5 

4.5 
2.7 

11.0 
13.3 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 

13.0 
15.0 

14.5 
15.5 

25.0 
18.0 

0.6 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 

0.5 
0.5 

0.6 
0.4 

0.7 
0.4 

1:6.2 
1:6.0 
1:5.4 
1:6.2 

1:6.7 

1:5.7 
1:5.6 

1:4.5 
1:6.6 

1:5.9 
1:7.0 

Milch  cow,  (daily  yield, 
22  Ibs.  milk)  

Ewes,  with  lambs.  
Sheep,    fattening,    last 
part  of  period  .  . 
Brood  sows 

Hogs,    fattening,    first 
part  of  period  
Hogs  fattening  in  last 
part    of  period  .  .  . 

INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  55; 
characteristics  of,  57 ;  early 
breeders  of,  56;  importation 
into  America,  56;  origin,  56. 

Action,  study  of  in  horses,  164, 
170. 

Age,  of  horses,  147;    sheep,  198. 

Alfalfa,  295. 

American  Saddle  Horse,  28. 

American  Trotter  or  Pacer,  30, 
226;  famous  records,  31; 
famous  trotters  and  pacers, 
32;  origin  of  the,  30. 

Angora  goat,  95. 

Animal  husbandry,  importance 
of,  11. 

Animals,  care  of,  313;  com- 
pared with  plants,  263;  com- 
position of,  257;  food  require- 
ments of,  276,  321;  market 
classes  and  grades,  119; 
types,  114. 

Armsby  feeding  standards,  279, 
286. 

Arab  horse,  26. 

Ash,  in  plants  and  animals,  258, 
262;  in  food,  269. 

Ass,  43. 

Atavism,  227. 

Ayrshire  cattle,  68;  character- 
istics, 69;  distribution,  70: 
origin,  68;  records,  70. 


Bacon  hog  type,  119,  218. 
Bantam  fowls,  333. 
Bakewell,  Robert,  90,  232. 
Balanced  ration,   denned,   279; 

how  to  calculate,  281. 
Barley,  293,  308. 
Bates,  Thomas,  48,  223,  224. 
Beef,  cuts  of,  174;    production, 

16. 


Beef  animal,  condition  of  the, 
176;  form  of  the,  174;  qual- 
ity in  the,  177. 

Beef  cattle,  breeds,  47 ;  judging, 
174;  score  card  for,  178; 
type,  117,  122. 

Belgian  horse,  41. 

Bellfounder,  226. 

Bermuda  grass,  291. 

Berkshire  pig,  characteristics, 
101;  distribution,  102;  origin, 
100. 

Black  Faced  Highland  sheep, 
94. 

Booth,  William,  49,  224. 

Brahma   fowls,   330. 

Bran,  306. 

Branding,  254. 

Breeders,  young,  suggestions  to, 
248. 

Breeding,  chapters  on,  221; 
exercise  of  breeding  stock, 
320;  importance  of  heredity 
in,  223 ;  judging  breeding  ani- 
mals, 182,  207,  217. 

Brewers'  grains,  308. 

Brome  grass,  291. 

Brooder,  353. 

Brooder  house,  377. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle,  71. 

Bull,  care  of,  321;  dairy,  form 
of  the,  184. 

Byerly  Turk,  27. 


Calorie,  270. 
Calorimeter,  271. 
Canada  field  pea,  297. 
Carbohydrates,  259,  263,  268. 
Care  of  farm  animals,  313. 
Carriage     hor&e,     breeds,     33; 

judging,  158;    score  card  for, 

160;    type,  116. 


390 


INDEX 


Carrot,  301. 

Cattle,  breeds  of,  46;  food  re- 
quired by,  279,  322;  judging, 
125,  173;  market  classes  and 
grades,  119;  stomach  of,  265; 
origin,  46;  type,  117. 

Cereals,  as  forage,  292 ;  as  con- 
centrated feeds,  304. 

Channel  Islands,  58,  66,  129. 

Cheshire  pig,  111. 

Chester  White  pig,  106;  char- 
acteristics, 107;  origin,  106. 

Cheviot  sheep,  87. 

Clover,  294. 

Clydesdale  horse,  39;  merits, 
39;  distribution,  40. 

Coach  horse  type,  116. 

Coarse  feeds,  288. 

Cochin  fowls,  331. 

Cocked  ankle,  156. 

Colling  Bros.,  48,  224. 

Colony  houses  for  poultry,  378. 

Color,  in  inheritance,  225. 

Comparison,  judging  by,  134. 

Composition  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, 257. 

Concentrate,  denned,  260. 

Concentrated  feeds,  303. 

Conformation,  definition  of,  125. 

Coops  for  poultry,  379. 

Corn,  292,  304. 

Cotswold  sheep,  91. 

Cottonseed-meal,  309. 

Cow  pea,  297. 

Cross-bred  animal,  defined,  240. 

Cruickshank,  Amos,  49,  224. 

Curb,  152. 


Dairy  bull,  form  of  the,  184, 
quality  in  the,  184;  tempera- 
ment, 185. 

Dairy  cattle,  breeds  of,  58; 
judging,  183;  points  of,  187; 
score  card,  186;  type,  117. 

Dairy  cow,  form,  183;  quality 
in  the,  184;  size  of  the,  183; 
temperament,  185. 

Darley  Arabian,  27. 


Delaine  Merino,  77,  203;    score 

card  for,  205. 
Denmark,  29. 
Devon  cattle,  70. 
Dexter  cattle,  72. 
Digestible    nutrients,    amounts 

in  food,  274;  tables  of,  287. 
Digestion,  process  of,  265. 
Digestive  organs,   capacity   of, 

267. 

Distillers'  grains,  310. 
Dorset  Horn  sheep,  86;     score 

card  for,  130. 
Draft    horse,     breeds    of,     36; 

judging  of,  167;     score  card, 

168;    type,  116. 
Dual-purpose  cattle  type,  117. 
Ducks,  breeds  of,  334. 
Duroc-Jersey  pig,  104,  merits  of 

the,  105. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  72. 

Eclipse,  27. 

Eggs,  color  of,  356;  effect  of 
food  on,  364;  freshness  of, 
356;  grades,  357;  incubation, 
350;  judging,  346;  parts  of, 
349;  preservation  of,  358; 
size  and  weight  of,  355;  test- 
ing, 350. 

Ellman,  John,  79. 

Environment  and  selection, 
235. 

Essex  pig,  112. 

Exercise,  need  of  for  farm  ani- 
mals, 320. 

Farm  Animals,  care  of,  313; 
food  required  by,  321;  im- 
portance of,  11;  judging  of, 
125,  173;  market  classes  and 
grades,  119;  types  of,  114; 
uses  of,  14. 

Fat,  in  animals,  262;  in  food, 
269;  in  plants,  260. 

Fecundity,  225. 

Feeding  standards,  274 ;  Wolff's, 
277;  Armsby's,  279;  Haeck- 
er's,  285. 


INDEX 


391 


Feeding  tables,  287,  288. 

Feeds,  coarse,  288;  concen- 
trated, 303. 

Feet,  care  of,  of  farm  animals, 
323;  inspection  of,  162. 

Food  constituents,  260,  268. 

Foods,  heat  value  of,  270;  in- 
fluence of  a  body,  265;  re- 
quired by  animals,  321,  276. 

Forage,  288. 

F'ounder,  155. 

French  Canadian  cattle,  72. 

French  Coach  horse,  35. 


Gaits  of  horses,  29,  34,  146,  164. 

Galliers,  Wm.,  53. 

Galloway  cattle,  57. 

Geese,  breeds  of,  337. 

Genetics,  235. 

German  Coach  horse,  36. 

Gluten  feed,  305. 

Goats,  95. 

Godolphin  Barb,  27. 

Grade  animal,  denned,  240 

Grasses,  kinds  and  values  for 
feed,  288. 

Guernsey  cattle,  66;  character- 
istics, 66;  distribution,  68; 
origin,  66;  records,  67. 


Hackney  horse,  33. 

Haecker's    feeding    standards, 

285. 

Hambletonian  10,  30,  226. 
Hampshire  Down  sheep,  85. 
Hampshire  pig,  109. 
Heaves,  151. 
Heredity,    defined,    221;    latent 

characters,  227. 
Hereford     cattle,     52;       early 

breeders  of,  53;    importation 

into  America,  53. 
Herd  records,  252. 
Herod,  27. 
Hewer,  John,  53. 
Hogs,  (See  Swine). 


Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  62 ; 
breed  characteristics,  62;  dis- 
tribution, 64;  origin,  62;  rec- 
ords, 64;  types,  65. 

Hominy  feed,  305. 

Horses,  age  of,  147;  breeds  of, 
23;  development  of  breeds, 
26;  domestication  of,  25; 
food  required  by,  278,  321; 
judging,  125,  158;  origin  of,* 
23;  points  of,  138;  types  of, 
116;  unsoundnesses,  151. 


Incubation,  349. 
Indian  corn,  292,  304. 
Inheritance,  forms  of,  224  (See 

Heredity). 
Irish  Grazier  pig,  102. 

Jacoba,  Irene,  61. 

Jersey  cattle,  58;  breed  char- 
acteristics, 60;  distribution, 
59;  origin,  58;  records,  60. 

Judge,  description  of  a  good, 
125. 

Judging,  reasons  and  methods, 
125;   horses,  158;   cattle,  173; 
poultry,    340;      sheep,    196; 
eggs,  345;    swine,  20-9;   pedi 
gree,  245. 


Kentucky  blue  grass,  289. 
Kerry  cattle,  72. 

Langshan   fowls,    331. 
Large  Yorkshire  pig,  108. 
Leghorn  fowls,  331. 
Legumes,  294. 
Leicester  sheep,  90. 
Lincoln  sheep,  93. 
Linseed  oil  meal,  309. 
Live  stock,  importance  of,  11; 

market   classes    and    grades 

119;    principal  markets,  122; 

shelter  for,   316;     stalls   for 

319. 


392 


INDEX 


Maintenance  ration,  277. 

Maltese  goat,  96. 

Mangel,  300. 

Manures,  19. 

Market    grades,     cattle,     119; 

eggs,  357. 

Marking  of  animals,  253. 
Matchem,  27. 
Meat  meal,  311. 
Merino  sheep,  75,  235. 
Merino  type,  118,  123,  203. 
Messenger,  30. 
Middlings,  307.    - 
Milk,  311. 
Milk  production,  in  inheritance, 

225. 

Milk  veins,  194. 
Milch  goats,  96. 
Millet,  291. 
Minorca  fowls,  332. 
Mohair,  95. 
Mule,  44. 

Mule  Foot  hog,  226. 
Mutation,  227. 

Natural  selection,  230. 
Navicular  disease,  156. 
Nutritive  ratio,  272. 

Oats,  293,  307. 
O.  I.  C.  pig,  106. 
Oil  meal,  309. 
"Old  Grannie,"  56. 
Orchard  grass,  290. 
Orpington  fowls,  330. 
Oxford  Down  sheep,  83. 

Palatability,  271. 

Pedigrees,  ancestry  in,  243; 
chapter  on,  240;  bracket 
form  of,  241;  line  of  female 
descent  pedigree,  242;  merit 
value  of,  244;  score  card  for, 
245;  selection  of,  238. 

Pig   (See  Swine). 

Plants,  composition  of,  258; 
compare  with  animals,  263. 

Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  328. 


Poland-China  pig,  102. 

Pony,  wild,  25;  Shetland,  43; 
type,  117. 

Poultry,  dust  bath  for,  386; 
eggs  and  incubation,  352; 
feeding,  360;  houses  and 
equipment,  374 ;  judging, 
340;  organs  of  digestion  of, 
360;  types  and  breeds,  325. 

Prepotency,  222. 

Price,  John,  53. 

Protein,  animal,  262;  in  food, 
268;  in  plants,  259. 

Quarter-crack,  155. 

Rambouillet  sheep,  78,  203. 

Rape,  299. 

Ratio,  nutritive,  272. 

Rations,  balanced,  279;  cal- 
culating, 281;  maintenance, 
277;  poultry,  366. 

Red  clover,  294. 

Red  Polled  cattle,  70. 

Red  top,  290. 

Registration  of  animals,  253. 

Rhode  Island  Red  fowls,  329. 

Ringbone,  154. 

Roaring,  151. 

Romney  Marsh  sheep,  94. 

Root  crops,  300. 

Rothamsted  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, 20. 

Roughage,  260,  288. 

Rye,  293,  309. 

Saanan  goat,  97. 

Salvator,  28. 

Sanitation  of  stables,  315. 

Score  card,  for  beef  cattle,  178; 

carriage    horse,    160;     dairy 

cows,  186;    draft  horse,  168; 

eggs,    346;     origin    of,    129; 

pedigree,  245;    poultry,  344; 

sheep,  201,  205;    swine,  212; 

use  of,  129. 


INDEX 


393 


Selection,  230;  artificial,  231; 
environment  and,  235;  meth- 
odical, 231;  natural,  230;  pol- 
icy in,  230;  to  secure  desir- 
able characters  by,  233;  ra- 
tional selection,  237. 

Self-feeders,  poultry,  363. 

Shetland  pony,  43. 

Shorthorn  cattle,  47;  char- 
acteristics of,  51;  distribu- 
tion, 50;  improvement  of,  48. 

Sheep,  age,  198;  breeds  of,  74; 
classes  of,  74;  food  require- 
ments, 322;  handling,  196; 
judging,  196;  origin  of,  74; 
pens  for,  320 ;  score  card,  201, 
205;  types  of,  118,  203. 

Shire  horse,  40. 

Short  leet,  135. 

Shorts,  307. 

Shropshire  sheep,  82. 

Side  bone,  153. 

Silage,  298. 

Small  Yorkshire  pig,  112. 

Soil  fertility,  relation  of  farm 
animals  to,  18. 

Southdown  sheep,  79. 

Soy  bean,  297. 

Spavin,  152,  153. 

Speed,  inheritance  of,  226. 

Splint,  155. 

Stables,  315. 

Standard  Bred  trotters,  30. 

Standard  of  Perfection,  340. 

Steers,  open  shed  feeding,  318. 

Stock  farming,  21. 

Suffolk  sheep,  89. 


Swine,  bacon,  218;  breeds  of, 
99;  food  requirements,  322; 
judging,  210;  origin  of,  99; 
pens  for,  320;  score  card: 
fat  hog,  212;  types,  119,  123, 
209,  218. 

Tamworth  pig,  110. 

Tankage,  311. 

Temperament  in  animals,  225. 

Therm,  270. 

Thoroughbred  horse,  27. 

Thoroughpin,  153. 

Timothy,  289. 

Toe-crack,  155. 

Toggenburg  goat,  96. 

Tomkins  family,  53. 

Tunis  sheep,  89. 

Turkeys,  breeds  of,  333. 

Turnip,  301. 

Type,  animal,  and  its  import- 
ance, 114,  122;  uniformity  in, 
236. 

Union  Stock  Yards,  13. 

Variation  in  animals,  228. 
Ventilation  of  stables,  319. 
Victoria  pig,  111. 

Water,  in  animal  body,  261;  in 
plants,  258;  use  of  by  ani- 
mals, 271. 

Watson,  Hugh,  56. 

Webb,  Jonas,  80. 

Wheat,  293,  306. 

Wheat  bran.  306. 

Wild  boar,  99. 

Wild  White  cattle,  46. 

Wolff,  276;  feeding  standards. 
276,'  285. 

Wool,  201. 

Wyandotte  fowls,  329. 


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